336 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BIOLOGY 



part of the skull, two teeth, and a femur. The femur indicated that its 

 owner walked in an erect posture and was nearly as tall as men of today; 

 but it is the teeth that point most strongly to an advance beyond the 

 simian condition. The name Pithecanthropus erectus has been applied 

 to this form. Other remains contemporaneous with it fix the geological 

 time as early Pleistocene, or perhaps half a million years ago. 



Homo heidelbergensis, the Heidelberg man, is represented only by 

 a lower jaw with its teeth. This was found near Heidelberg in Germany. 

 Its human character is assigned to it largely fi-om the nature of the teeth, 

 which are certainl}^ not ape-like. The other animals belonging to the 

 same period indicate the time to be the second inter-glacial stage, or 

 perhaps 300,000 years ago. Crude tools appear to have been in use at 

 this time. 



The Neanderthal man. Homo neanderthalensis, was first found in 

 Prussia in 1856. Several other specimens were subsequently recovered 

 in Belgium, France, Croatia, and at Gibraltar. These relics hail from 

 the third inter-glacial and fourth glacial stage, the former period being 

 probabl}' much more than 100,000 3'ears ago. Large portions of the 

 skeleton have been saved in some of the specimens. The jaws are less 

 massive than the earlier forms, and while the chin still recedes it is 

 more prominent than in the apes. The teeth of the different specimens 

 are variable, but these and the skull characters in general are intermediate 

 between those of the anthropoid apes and modern man. The skeletons 

 were taken from burial places, where ornaments and tools were also found. 



Quite recently (1912) fragments of a skull were found at Piltdown, 

 Sussex, England, which seem to antedate the Neanderthal man. But 

 since its status is still much in doubt, it is not placed in this series. 



Cr6-Magnon men were found first in France and Wales. A number 

 of entire skeletons have been excavated. The skull was narrow, but 

 the face broad, as in the Eskimos of today. The cheekbones were promi- 

 nent, as was also the chin. The skull was large, and the facial angle 

 indicated high intelligence. Signs of civilization in the form of works of 

 art, methods of burial of the dead, etc., point also to considerable mental 

 development. 



The gradual approach toward modern human characteristics which 

 these man-like forms constitute can be better visualized from restorations. 

 Figure 232 represents three members of the series. The restorations of 

 Pithecanthropus and the Heidelberg man are somewhat speculative, since 

 only parts of the skulls are known; the later forms required little con- 

 jecture. The expression may not, of course, be correctly estimated but 

 the measurements are reliable. Such features as the prominence of the 

 jaws, the degree of recession of the chin, the height of the cheekbones, 

 and the slope of the forehead are (at least for the forms whose skulls 

 are completely known) correctly portrayed. The figures indicate a 



