Ch. vii. among modem Pastoral Nations. 143 



On the whole, therefore, it would appear that 

 in that department of the shepherd life which has 

 been considered in this chapter, the principal 

 checks which keep the population down to the 

 level of the means of subsistence are, restraint 

 from inability to obtain a wife, vicious customs 

 with respect to women, epidemics, wars, famine, 

 and the diseases arising from extreme poverty. 

 The three first checks and the last appear to have 

 operated with much less force among the shep- 

 herds of the north of Europe. 



