xlii Appendix. 
natural position, in order to put the strain upon some other part of its 
body ; it either sits upon the back edge of the seat and rests its chest 
against the edge of the desk, or throws the weight of the head and shoulders 
upon the arm put between the body and the edge of the desk, both of them 
unhealthy positions, as they compress the lungs and prevent their free 
action, besides forming more or less of an angle in the back. If the child 
has to read a book placed on a desk at too great a distance, it sits on the 
edge of the seat, and soon becomes tired, when what I have just described is 
sure to happen ; or the child will rest its chin upon its hands, and thus tend 
to elevate its shoulders in an unnatural manner. In no school in the city 
have I found backs to the seats; and the distance between the seat and the 
desk varies in different schools. In most, it is, I think, too great, certainly 
to allow the child to be comfortable while writing. The distance being so 
great, the child must of necessity sit upon the very edge of the form, a 
most tiring position ; or if it sits upon the seat so that half the length of 
the thigh is supported by the seat, it must lean forward so as to make with 
its back an angle of about 45°. These defects could be overcome by having 
the seat broad enough to support at least two-thirds of the thigh, and the 
height of the seat such as to allow the sole of the foot to rest comfortably 
on the ground ; the edge of the desk should be above and perpendicular to 
the front edge of the seat, and just high enough to allow the elbow to rest 
upon it without pushing up the shoulder. The angle at which the desk 
should be is also an important point. Dr. Liebreich, who has written upon 
this subject, says, that to ensure as much ease as possible to the eye, they 
should have an inclination for reading of about 40°, for writing 20°. In 
order to answer both these requirements, he has suggested a desk, which, 
by a very-simple contrivance, gives the desired position for reading and 
writing. 
The ordinary kind of back generally put on to forms is not that which 
should be copied for school seats. It is usually too high, catching the 
person seated across the shoulders, and leaving the lower part of the back 
and spine unsupported. In weak persons the tendency is to bow the back 
outward, because the ligaments and muscles of the lower part of the spine 
get tired, and can no longer support the body. The proper kind of back 
for school seats is a strong, not very wide, piece of wood projecting straight 
up, or if inclined, with only a slight inclination backward ; the height must 
vary somewhat according to the length of back of the child, it being neces- 
sary to support the lower third of the back, or up to the level of the waist. 
In some parts of America so much importance is attached to the subject of 
desks, seats, and backs, that every child has its own made for it, unless 
there are any perfectly suited to its height in the school to which it is sent. 
