LIVING BEINGS— ORGANIZATION IN GENERAL. 3 



carefully examined, when there are vast tracts in the interior of Asia, Africa, America, we shall here briefly elucidate. Tlie several parts of a bein" bavin" a 



and the isles of the Southern Ocean, which have never been trod by civilized man, ^^^^^ adaptation, there are certain constitutional arranfjements' wbic'h 



while manv portions, even of Europe, are but superficially explored, and when the ■ , •■ i • i , . . 



. , ■ , . • ^1 ^ ■ . ■ \- \- ^"^ incompatible with others; asain, there are some with whlrh fhpv iro 



depths of the vast ocean present msuperable bai-ners to mvestigation, we may reason- . '^ ' = "' '•"cil aic sumt w iiii w nicil tne_\ are 



ably expect, that the whole number of species will be found to be very much greater. inseparably connected. When, therefore, certain peculiarities belong to 



Improved microscopes have disclosed myriads of animalcules previously unknown, and *^^ object, we may calculate with facility what can, and what cannot co- 



almost every fluid contains an enormous variety of distinct forms, many of them pecu- exist with them. We, accordingly, distinguish by the terms important or 



liar to each kind of liquid. All this apparent chaos is by the art of the naturaUst leadina rlmrnrtpri thn=!P narts nrnnartio,; ^,. ..„.,oi.-f .■ i 



,-, , ^ ,.',,, . , ■ ■ , , J ''^""'"s '^"''™"frs, inose pares, properties, or constitutional arrann-ements 



reduced to a beautiful system, and immediately one universal principle of order may , • , , ^ , t"'u.i^<;iin.iii,», 



be traced throughout the whole. ^''^'"S *^ greatest number of these relations of inconsistencj-, or of ne- 



Scarcely any object in nature is so peculiar in its formation, as to be at T'"''''^, '=°-"=^''"="'^f ' °'"' '" "'•^'^'^ ^°'^'' ^^''^'^ ^^^^^^^<^ "Pon the whole 



once defined by any single trait in its character. We are almost always ''^^ 'he most marked influence. Others of minor importance aretermed 



under the necessity of combining many of these peculiarities, in order to ^"^'"•f ."^'^ characters. The superiority of characters is sometimes deter- 



... . , 1 • . /• ii i I • 1 •.. • 1 11- I -IT mined in a satisfactory manner, by considerina the nature of tlip nrm,w 



distinguish an object from others to which it is nearly allied; especially j ., , . , , m^- hhluh, or cue organs 



1 .1 11- J u- ^ .u u » 11 r •. V described in the character. When this is impracticable, we must resnrt 



when these alhed objects possess some, though not all, of its peculia- • 1 u ■ "-.•..v.^iun., wi, musi report 



, ^, ,. ... •» J i ..u »■ r j-r- '° simple observation; and, from the nature of a character mii'st infpr 



rities, or when these pecuhanties are united to other properties of a dif- . , , i-^aiaLier, uiusc inrer 



r- 1 i_ . fTM ^u V 1 1 • 1. u . u s"*^" t° he the most decided as are found the least liable to v.irv wh^n 



fcrent character. The more numerous the objects are which have to be . ^ >•">. icci.i naun. lu \ary, wncn 



,...,,, .^ , ^ 1.- 1 ii, X c traced through a long series of beings, diiTerin" in dcrees of respmhbinpo 



distinguished, the more it becomes necessary to multiply the terms of ° " '' '"""=""='" "^cs'cts 01 rcsemc/idnce. 



, • 11^ »u .. -.1 ^ .. ■ .1 II For tfi's reason, we should select for the grand divisions, those charnrfprs 



their several characters; so that, without some contrivance, they would . " ""'vi=,iuua, muse Lu.iraciers 



, J • i- c ■ • ^ 1 u T .1 • 1 ■ which are at once important and permanent; and mav reserve wifli nrn 



become descriptions of inconvenient length. To remove this objec- • 1 , ,• ^5 ""u may icsli ve, wuu pro- 



,. . . J uj- ■ ■ 1 " J A » • 1 c ^ p^ety, the subordinate and variable characters for the minor subdivi^inns 



tion, divisions and subdivisions are employed. A certain number of al- ' mmui buuoiMsions 



.... I, , 1 • ' 1 • . , 01 our system. 

 ned species are collected together into one group, and it then becomes 



1 . r .1 • »• 1 . »u ■ ^ -l here can be but one complete system, and that is, the natnr.nl mpthnrl 



necessary only to express, for their respective characters, the points 1 .r ••^ "> •"'" ••""'• '». i-ue jiaiurai meinoa. 



wherein they differ, which, according to the above supposition, form ""'^ 7^'"' "'' "'^ '^""^ §«""=' "'^^'^ °' <^'''=s. resemble each other 



but a small part of their description. The whole group is termed a "'°'' "'™ """^ ^° "'•= 'P'^'^"^' "^ ^"^ °"'" corresponding division; the 



m i-is u 111 • J • J- .-• • 1 ■ ii place of each object is decided by its relation to surroundiii" heintrc. r^nrl 



uemis. The same difncultv would be experienced in distinguishing the 11, -^ """n uj suuounum^ ueings, ^aiia 



r u ,.1 •!• " J- 1 .. .. .1 »• I ■ the whole arrangement forms a type of that beauteous svifem of ininrp 



cenera from each other, if we did not repeat the operation, by grouping "^ -"^ u^autn-us sxsicm 01 nature 



the allied genera to form an order; and then assembling the allied orders ,' " '''^"S«l thro' all, thro' all remains the same." Even Linnaeus, 



to constitute a class. Subdivisions intermediate to these are established '''''° ^'''""'^ ."'" ^''^ ="''^'^'"' 'y^"^'" ^"^^ presented to the world, oh- 



, r,,! ■ .• i- J ■ ■ ■ 1 ■ 1 »u • serves, in his Philosoph. Bot. S 77, that natural historians slimild rpo-nrd 



when necessary. This aggregation ot divisions, in winch the superior ^ » "> ">• ■■oiu.ai ihmuiicuis snouia regard 



, • .1 • r ■ • , " J , v; J T. 1 1 the natural method of arrangement as the ultimate aim of their labours 



contain the inferior, is termed a .w/i/cm or mcMorf. It may be compared, i , , -- "■""■"i^'. umi ui umr laoouii. 



J. ^. 1 ■ ..1, .• 'r.i- In a word, the natural method is the very soul of Natural Histnrv 



in some respects, to a dictionary, wherein the properties of things are an ■' iiaiuiai nisior\. 



index to t^eir names, being the reverse of ordinary dictionaries, in which " lJn<=Ting nature, still divinely bright, 



. , , . . One clear, uncnangcd and universal light."] 

 the names are given, as an index to their meanings or properties. 



Thus it appears, that a collection of individuals of the same form 



constitute a species, 



Of species — a genus, 



°'S™era an order, 5^.^,^ „ — qj, living beings, and of organization in geneb\l. 



Of orders a class. 



And of classes a kingdom. Life — Its definition — Brnth — Organization — Generation — Spontaneous Generation 



To explain this arrmgement more clearly, we shall take an ex.-imple from the Ani- —-lieproduction — Species — Varieties — Permanence of Species — Pre-existeuce of 

 raal Kingdom; suppose, the horse. This animal belongs to the class Mammalia, 



containing all which suckle their young ; to the order J'ac/iy'ArmaM, or thick-skinned t „„ u • .1 »■ i » r n i • ,. 



.,.»,, u . V J V. J . .u 11 IjIFE, being the most important of nil the properties of created existence 



animals, such as the elephant, boar, and rhinoceros; and to the genus F.qmis, com- j c ■ ^'t-ui-cu c,i.i=itiiLi. , 



posed of animals with solid hoofs, as the ass and zebra. From these allied species it ^'^""^ "'■^' '" ''"^ ^^ale of characters. It has always been considered tlie 

 is finally distinguished by the term cabaltus. Thus, the scientific name of the horse most general principle of division ; and, by universal consent, natural ob- 

 is Equus cahallus, terms derived from its genus and species. But, as dilferent natu- jects have been arranged into two immense divisions, ORGANIC beings 

 raUs-.s often give different names to the same animal, it becomes necessary to add to [comprising animals and plants], and INORGANIC beings [comprisin" mine- 

 these the name of the naturaUst who first introduced the generic and specific names. .it » i o 

 In the above example, we therefore write Equus caballus, Linn, for the celebrated na- " 



turalist LinncDUS. In the following pages, we shall give an extensive list of the various The word Xz/t is used under two significations which are often confounded. It 



synonymcs, or names belonging to the same animals, for facilitating reference to other may be applied merely as a general term to express, with brevity, the various phenu- 



wcrks on the same subject. mena peculiar to living beings; or it may signify the cause of these phenomena. It 



Such is the method indispensably required, in framing the arrangement of the al- is in the latter sense that the terms vital principle, or principle of life, are employeii ; 



n-.ost unbound^^d objects of Natural History. being, in this respect, perfectly analogous to the terms gravity, heat, attraction, and 



We need scarcely caution our readers against the errors of the Kealists, once the electricity, which are used in the general sciences under a twofold signification, the 



cause of so much contention in the schools. The individuals alone, or more properly one physical, — the other metaphysical. But, it is with the phenomena alone, or the 



the particles composing each individual, have a real existence in nature, while species, physical sense of these terms, that Natural Philosophy has any concern. The know- 



gcuera, fee. are but general words, invented by man, to express certain points of re- ledge of causes is removed far beyond the reach of human reason; and, by neglecting 



semblance, which he perceives among then: properties. to discriminate between these two senses, ancient philosophers before Lord Bacon, 



There are two different principles observed in the formation of systems of arrange- ^"d too many modern ones since his time, have fallen into endless discussions, and ob- 



raent, according as they are intended to be artificial or natural. The design of an scured the Ught of real science. Yet, it is difficult, upon a subject so interesting as 



artificial system is to enable the student to find the name of an object, whose proper- ^^^e, in which we all feel deeply concerned, to restrain curiosity within the bounds of 



ties arc known, and to this alone its utility is, in general, confined. Thus, Linnsus reason and philosophy. A recent anonymous writer asks, " Who has not put to him- 



Liranged plants, chiefly according to the number and situation of the stamens and pistils self the question ' What is Ufe?' Who would not receive a clear and just solution uf 



contained in their flowers. But, being founded on the comparison of only one single ^^^ inquiry, with a feeling of interest, far beyond that afforded by the successful result 



organ, the artificial method conveys no general knowledge of other properties, and ^^ ^"7 ordinary scientific investigation? We can comprehend part of the mechanism by 



frequently separates objects which ought never to be disjoined. It is altogether dif- which Ufe acts ; we feel its result. We see that mechanism to be so delicate, so com- 



fiTcnt with a natural method. Its divisions are not founded upon the consideration pUcated, so fragile, so easily set wTong, while our interest is so deep that it should act 



of a single organ, but are derived from characters presented by all the parts of the weU, and permanently weU, that the exquisiteness of adjustment, the skill of contrivance, 



object. Accordingly, the objects are disposed in such a manner, that each bears a ^nd the completeness with which the intended result is secured — all subjects of distimt 



greater affinity to that which immediately precedes and follows it, than to any other. and interesting investigation — only increase the earnestness of our wish, that we cou d 



When this method, therefore, is good, it is not confined to a mere list '" ''^>'™'' ""= mechanism, and understand that, which it is permitted us to know on'.y 



r Tc , , T • • 1 1 , ,..-., ^y examining its phenomena, 



ot names. It the subdivisions have not been selected arbitrarily, but rest ., ^ir , ,. , -j , ,. • ... 



■' " « e do not commonly consider liow muc/i is given us m hfe, — the daily eniovment 



upon real and permanent relations, and upon the essential points of re- of the boon renders us insensible to the variety and plenitude of its richness. We 



semblance in objects, the natural method is the means of reducing the shaU become more sensible of it upon contemplating the various tissues of organic 



properties of beings to general laws, of expressing them with brevity, particles that have been formed ; the number of properties that arc attached to each ; 



and of fixing them permanently on the memory. To produce these re- ""= °'™'""' °^ "S^s that are constituted by their aggregation and arrangement; the 



■ , . , ., , J J »i -J c 1 number of functions that ai'e exercised by those organs ; and the number of adiust- 



Eults, objects must be assiduously compared under the guidance of another , ^ ,l „ i- , t , , . ■""""- ""'""tr oi dujust- 



, . . , ., •' ,. ^ , % , nl-°'' t'y ^'"'"™ ^'l' ^''<= Combined, harmonized, and made eff.-ctual to the productio-i of 



general principle, necessarily proceeding from that of the conditions of one grand result. It is then we perceive, how many things must exist, how m:.ny 



existence formerly e:;;:lained, enWcd t/:c snburJinalion nf characters, which relations n.ust be estabhshed, how many actions must be performed, how many 



