12 



INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS OF ANIMALS. 



Blows and other injuries of the head will often affect the memory in a manner alto- 

 gether incredible and surprising; and similar effects are sometimes produced by a high 

 degree of nervous excitement. 



Ideas which resemble [which contrast], or which were produced at the 

 same time [or in the same place], have the power of recalling each other. 

 This is termed the association of ideas. The order, the extent, and the 

 quickness in which this power is exercised, constitutes the perfection of 

 the mem.ory. 



Every object presents itself to the memory with all its qualities, and 

 all the ideas associated therewith. The understanding possesses the power 

 of separating these associated ideas from the objects, and of combining 

 all the properties resembling each other in different objects under one 

 general idea. This power of generahzation, by which an object is 

 imagined to be divested of certain properties, which in reality are never 

 found separate, is termed Abstraction. 



The power of abstraction appears to belong exclusively to Man; who, by the in- 

 vention of general terms, is enabled to reason concerning entire classes of objects 

 and events, and to arrive at general conclusions, comprehending a multitude of parti- 

 cular truths. 



Every sensation being more or less agreeable, or disagreeable, experi- 

 ence and repeated trials readily point out the movements necessary to 

 procure the one, or to avoid the other. The understanding thence de- 

 duces general rules for the direction of the Will relatively to pleasure and 

 pain. 



An agreeable sensation may produce unpleasant consequences ; and 

 the foresight of these consequences may react upon the first sensation, 

 and thus produce certain modifications of the abstract rules framed by 

 the understanding. This is prudence or self-love. 



The lower animals seem influenced only by their present or very recent sensations, 

 and they invariably yield to the impulse of the moment. Man alone appears able to 

 form the general idea of happiness, and, by taking a comprehensive view of things, 

 to lay down a plan for the regulation of his future conduct, and the attainment of his 

 favourite objects. 



But an inseparable barrier is placed between man and inferior intelligences, by the 

 power of perceiving those qualities of actions which are termed right and wrong, and 

 the emotions which attend their perception. The supremacy of conscience, and its 

 claim to be considered an original faculty of the mind, are clearly pointed out by Bishop 

 Butler. '* Virtue," he elsewhere observes, "is that which :dl ages and all countries 

 have made profession of in public — it is that which every man you meet puts on the 

 show of — it is that which the primary and fundamental laws of all civil constitutions 

 over the face of the earth make it their business and endeavour to enforce the prac- 

 tice of. upon mankind, such as justice, veracity, or a regard for the common good." 



By appl3ing terms to express our general ideas, we obtain certain for- 

 mulae or rules, which are easily adapted to particular cases. This is judg- 

 ment or reasoning [which may be either intuitive or deductivc.l 



When original sensations and associations forcibly recur to the memory 

 [the mind possesses the power of combining and arranging them, to form 

 a new creation of its own], this is called imagination, and it may be ac- 

 companied by agreeable or painful associations. 



Man being endowed with superior privileges, possesses the faculty of 

 connecting his general ideas with particular signs. These are more or 

 less arbitrary, easily fixed in the memory, and serve to suggest the gene- 

 ral ideas, which they were intended to represent. We apply the term 

 symbols to designate these signs when associated with our general ideas, 

 and thev form a language when collectively arranged. Language may be 

 addressed either to the ear or to the eye ; in the former case it is termed 

 speech, in the latter, hierogli/phics. Writing is a series of images, by 

 which the elementary sounds are represented to the eye [under the form 

 of letters.l By combining them [into words'], the compound sounds of 

 which speech is composed are readily suggested. Writing is therefore an 

 indirect representation of our thoughts. 



This power of representing general ideas by particular signs or symbols, 

 which are arbitrarily associated with them, enables us to retain an im- 

 mense number of distinct ideas in the memory, and to recal them with 

 facility. Innumerable materials are thus readily supplied to the reason- 

 ing faculty and to the imagination. The experience of individuals is also 

 comm.unicated by written signs to the whole human species, and by this 

 means the foundation is laid for their indefinite improvement in knowledge 

 through the course of ages. 



The art of printing, by multiplying copies, has ensured the permanence of knowiedge, 

 and has afforded a powerful aid to the intellectual progress of the species. 



This capacity for indefinite improvement forms one of the distinguish- 

 ing characters of human intelligence. 



The most perfect animals are infinitely below Man, in respect to the 



degrees of their intellectual faculties ; but it is nevertheless certain that 

 their understandings perform operations of the same kind. They move 

 in consequence of sensations received; they are susceptible of lasting 

 affections ; and they acquire by experience a certain knowledge of exter- 

 nal things, sufficient to regulate their motions, by actually foreseeing their 

 consequences, and independently of immediate pain and pleasure. When 

 domesticated, theyfeel their subordination. Theyknowthat the being who 

 punishes them may refrain from doing so if he will, and they assume be- 

 fore him a supplicating air, when conscious of guilt, or fearful of his anger. 

 The society of man either corrupts or improves them. They are suscep- 

 tible of emulation and of jealousy; and, though possessed among them- 

 selves of a natural language, capable of expreL'sing the sensations of the 

 moment, they acquire from man a knowledge of the much more compli- 

 cated language through which he makes known his pleasure, and urges 

 them to execute it. 



We perceive, in fact, a certain degree of reason in the higher animals, 

 and consequences resulting from its use and abuse, similar to those ob- 

 served in Man. The degree of their intelligence is not far different from 

 that possessed by the infant mind, before it has learned to speak. But, 

 in proportion as we descend in the scale of creation to animals far below 

 man in organization, these faculties become more languid ; and, in the 

 lowest classes, they are reduced to certain motions obscurely indicating 

 some kind of sensation, and the desire of avoiding pain. The degrees of 

 intellect between these extremes are infinite. 



Dogs, cats, horses, birds, and other animals, may have their original faculties modi- 

 fied by personal experience ; and they are accordingly trained to the performance of 

 those extraordinary feats, which in all countries form a favourite amusement of the 

 people. " By experience," says Mr Hume, " animals become acquainted with the 

 more obvious properties of external objects; and gradually, from their birth, treasure 

 up a knowledge of the nature of fire, water, stones, earth, heights, depths, &c. The 

 ignorance and inexperience of the young are here plainly distinguishable from the 

 cunning and sagacity of the old, who have learned by long observation to avoid what 

 hurt them, and pursue what gave ease and pleasure. A horse that has been accus- 

 tomed to the field, becomes acquainted with the proper height he can leap, and will 

 never attempt what exceeds his force and ability. An old greyhound will trust the 

 more fatiguing part of the chase to the younger, and will place him.self so as to meet 

 the hare in her doubles; nor are the conjectures which he forms on this occasion 

 founded on any thing but his observation and experience. This is still more evident 

 from the effects of discipline and education on animals, who, by the proper applica- 

 tion of rewards and punishments, may be taught any course of action the most con- 

 trary to their natural instincts and propensities. Is it not experience which renders 

 a dog apprehensive of pain, when you menace him, or Hft up the whip to beat him? 

 Is it not even experience which makes him answer to his name, and infer, from such 

 an arbitrary sound, that you mean him rather than any of his fellows, and intend to 

 call him when you pronounce it in a certain manner and with a certain accent?" 



There exists, however, in a great number of animals, a faculty dif- 

 ferent from intelligence, called instinct. This power causes them to per- 

 form certain actions necessary to the preservation of the species, but 

 often altogether removed from the apparent wants of the individual. 

 Tliese are often so very comphcated and refined, that it is impossible to 

 suppose them the result of foresight, without admitting a degree of intel- 

 ligence in the species performing them, infinitely superior to what they 

 exhibit in other respects. The actions proceeding from instinct are still 

 less the effect of imitation, for the individuals executing them have some- 

 times never seen them performed by others. The degree of instinct is 

 by no means proportioned to the general inteUigence of the species ; but 

 it is in those animals which, in their other actions, manifest the utmost 

 stupidity, that instinct appears most singular, most scientific, and most 

 disinterested. It is so much the property of each entire species, that all 

 individuals exercise it in precisely the same manner, without ever attain- 

 ing to higher degrees of cultivation. 



*' Every other animal, but Man, from the first outset of the species and of the in- 

 dividual, is equal to his task; proceeds in the shortest way to the attainment of his 

 purpose, and neither mistakes the end nor the means by which it is to be obtained. 

 In what he performs, we often justly admire the ingenuity of the contrivance and the 

 completeness of the work. But it is the ingenuity of the species, not of the individual ; 

 or rather it is the wisdom of God, not the deliberate effect of invention or choice, 

 which the created being is fitted to employ for himself. His task is prescribed, and 

 his manner of performing it secured. Observe the animals most remarkable for a 

 happy choice of materials, and for the curious execution of their works. The bird, 

 how unvaried in the choice of the matter she employs in the structure, or in the situ- 

 ation, she has chosen for her eyrie or nest! Insects, most exquisitely artful in the 

 execution of their little works, for the accommodation of their swarms, and the lodge- 

 ment of their stores ; how accomplished in their first and least-experienced attempts ! 

 how uniform and unchanged in the last ! Nature appears to have given to the othe'' 

 animals a speci.lc direction to the means they are to employ, without any rational con- 

 ception of the end for which they are to employ them." 



