34 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



in the gentle topography of the Lake States. But the progress of 

 development is a gradual one, and in the meantime the soil might 

 profitably be kept in timber. Ultimately the forests, especially 

 those of northern hardwoods, will be rather closely confined to moun- 

 tain regions. The hardwood forests of the future will probably share 

 with spruce and fir the narrow mountain valleys and slopes at mod- 

 erate altitudes, where they will serve at once for steam-flow protec- 

 tion and timber supply. Ridge tops and higher altitudes in the 

 mountain and dry, poor, sandy soils elsewhere are better fitted for 

 softwood than for hardwood management. 



Large bodies of old-growth northern hardwoods still remain under 

 private ownership. From the standpoint of growth these represent 

 idle capital, since they have long passed the age of rapid volume 

 increment, and in many cases their growth is offset by decay. The 

 holding of these for increase in stumpage value is of doubtful wisdom 

 in view of deterioration, fire risk, insect damage, etc., and espe- 

 cially the rapidly accumulating interest and tax charges. The owner 

 has, therefore, every incentive to cut his timber and dispose of the 

 land. With very little trouble such lands, when not put into farms, 

 could be protected from fire and allowed to restock with "active 

 capital" in the form of vigorous young growth. Under Federal and 

 State action fire protection is rapidly becoming effective in many parts 

 of the region and thrifty stands of second-growth now occupy soils 

 which in earlier years would have been charred and barren. 



OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT. 



The northern hardwood forest region includes such a wide variety 

 of species, markets, climate, and topography that nearly all the rec- 

 ognized systems of management have then* place, and none is gener- 

 ally applicable. For any particular tract the system used will 

 depend also upon the object of management. This is often twofold, 

 as when the forest affords both watershed protection and a timber 

 supply. 



Ideally, forest management aims to secure the heaviest possible 

 sustained yield of the best species. Practically, it can approach this 

 ideal only so closely as is warranted by the cost of logging and the 

 value of the product. The degree of the compromise varies with 

 these two factors, and the possibilities are therefore greater in some 

 regions than in others. Just as the rise in stumpage value warrants 

 the private holding of timber as an investment under certain condi- 

 tions, it may also, in extreme cases, warrant the public holding of 

 forests until the time is ripe for more intensive managiMiicnt. 



Two considerations, however, point to the general advisability of 

 the early removal of the old-growth timber. These are (1) tho risk 

 of loss by fire, insects, decay, wind, or other cause, of the stored-up 



