THE RED SPRUCE. 21 



As to the less favorable showing of balsam, this was unquestion- 

 ably due in part to the smaller production of balsam seed, since 

 there were fewer balsam than spruce seed trees in the particular 

 locality where conditions were observed. Then, too, balsam seeds 

 are heavier than those of spruce, so that they would not be carried 

 so far by the wind, and balsam seedlings are also browsed by cattle 

 much more than spruce. 



If this behavior of spruce and of balsam in regard to time of seed 

 dispersal and germination is typical of the two species, it can be 

 readily seen that even with a less production of fertile seed than 

 spruce, balsam would have a considerable advantage. The fall ger- 

 mination of spruce would subject the very young seedlings to a 

 material reduction in numbers and vitality during the first winter as 

 a result of winter-killing, while the loss to balsam from this cause 

 would be comparatively insignificant. 



Spruce is at a disadvantage, too, in its early struggle for a foothold 

 in mixed hardwood stands. The usual explanation for its failure to 

 come in more plentifully under a mixed hardwood forest after cut- 

 ting is that the abundance of hardwood leaf litter on the ground at 

 the time of seed fall prevents the spruce seeds germinating thereon 

 from getting their roots into mineral soil, both because of the tough 

 and impenetrable texture of the birch, maple, and other hardwood 

 leaves and because the loosely compact surface layer of leaves sheds 

 the moisture and quickly dries out before the young spruce can get 

 established. While these undoubtedly are among the contributory 

 causes, observations made in Waterville, N. H., in the spring of 1911 

 in connection with spruce reproduction plots under hardwoods sug- 

 gest that here again the early seed dispersal habit of spruce works 

 to the disadvantage of its reproduction. On several of these plots 

 after the leaf litter of the previous fall was removed a considerable 

 number of spruce germinates of that spring were counted. Many, 

 however, were either wilted or had already succumbed to "damping- 

 off," while others were bleached almost white and the stem and leaves 

 were turgid and succulent, but without vigor, doubtless from too 

 humid growing conditions and lack of sufficient light. This was par- 

 ticularly noticeable under moosewood and young hardwood brush 

 with large coarse foliage. The absence of any one-year or two-year 

 spruce on these plots was also noticeable. A marked contrast to this 

 condition was found where any part of these plots happened to be 

 protected from the heavy hardwood leaf fall by a group of suppressed 

 spruce or small balsams or a pile of slash. Here there would be a gen- 

 erous number of spruce germinates and one and two year seedlings as 

 well. In fact, reproduction appeared to be entirely satisfactory. 



Whether fall germination takes place in these circumstances or 

 not, the seeds, or germinates, will be covered with a thick layer of 



