May 



•] 



SCIENCE. 



209 



people, and especially the rising generation, are being taught the 

 pecuniary value of food. The mass of the people do not realize the 

 extent of waste now going on. It can be more fully brought to 

 their attention when the pulpit seconds the press, and the preach- 

 ers themselves learn the pecuniary value of food, and urge it upon 

 those to whom they minister. When we are taught that it is sinful 

 to waste, we shall be more apt to imitate the French, and have a 

 greater variety of food, at less expense, with more leisure for the 

 economical housewife. 



Since 1865 the United States has led all other countries in the 

 preservation of food in hermetically sealed tins. Every variety of 

 soup, meat, fish, poultry, game, fruits, and vegetables is available at 

 any season of the year. 



The people are very rapidly learning " the pecuniary economy of 

 such food " as compared with a like quantity of the same articles 

 in a fresh condition. For instance : a one-pound can of the finest 

 salmon in the world, packed on the Columbia River within a few 

 hours of the time the fish is captured, costs the consumer 20 cents. 

 He is thus enabled to secure nutrients at a cost of 55 cents per 

 pound, which in fresh salmon at 35 cents per pound, as ordinarily 

 obtained in city markets, would cost S1.40 per pound. Until re- 

 cently this has been appreciated to a far greater extent in England 

 than here. In this country, five years ago, there were consumed 

 16,000,000 tins of salmon. Since then each year has recorded a 

 rapid increase in the quantity used, until last year 24,500,000 tins, 

 or more than one-half the supply, were taken for home consump- 

 tion. England is the chief buyer of American tinned meats, smiply 

 because consumers at home do not fully realize that a greater 

 amount of nutriment for a given sum can be obtained in that way 

 than from a like quantity of fresh meat at a far greater cost. 



The waste of Southern cotton-fields is now being transformed 

 into wholesome and cheap food, and destined, as W. JVIattieu Wil- 

 liams believes, to take the place of lard as a frying-medium. We 

 need not further specify in order to prove, that, as a people, we are 

 making progress in the direction of checking waste, and that as 

 population becomes more dense, time of less money-value, and the 

 necessity for economy greater, we shall master the full meaning of 

 ' the pecuniary value of food.' F. N. Barrett. 



ST. PETERSBURG LETTER. 



Russian chemical literature has been enriched this winter by two 

 considerable works, though of unequal value, — Mendeleef 's work 

 on solutions, and Menschutkin's ' Essay on the Development of 

 Chemical Theories.' In the former book the celebrated Russian 

 ■chemist gives a considerable account of his own work, together 

 with a clear exposition of the views of other chemists. I cannot 

 attempt to analyze it here, but mention only that he formulates 

 some simple laws in this matter, which will undoubtedly be ac- 

 cepted by the scientific world. IVIenschutkin's book leads us from 

 the phlogiston theory to the views of the present generation of 

 chemists. The last chapters are the best. The author has for 

 some years been engaged in the arduous task of measuring the time 

 and other conditions of chemical re-actions. The second edition of 

 Beilstein's ' Handbuch der Chemie,' published, like the first, at 

 Leipzig, is rapidly advancing. Though rather a compilation, it is 

 an exceedingly useful book, and it is scarcely credible that it should 

 be the labor of one man. The author .has been for more than 

 twenty years professor of chemistry, and director of the chemical 

 laboratory of the Technological Institute at St. Petersburg. 



Professor Mendeleef received a short time ago an official mission 

 to the Donetz coal-basin. The mine-owners petitioned for it, rep- 

 resenting that his work on the petroleum question proved him to be 

 equally competent in the scientific and economic aspect of it. 



Russia has to deplore the early death of a man who has already 

 done much for science, and could be expected to do more, — the 

 zoologist iVI. Bogdanow, professor of zoology at the University of 

 St. Petersburg. Born in 1841, educated at the Kazan University, 

 where he finished his studies in 1864, he came to St. Petersburg in 

 1871, and remained professor till his death, JMarch 16, 1888. Mam- 

 mals and birds, and their geographical distribution, were his prin- 

 cipal studies, especially the latter. His two greatest works are, 

 'The Birds of the Caucasus,' published in 1885; and 'Russian 



Ornithology,' the first part of which appeared in 1885. He travelled 

 extensively, especially in eastern Russia, the Caucasus, and to Khiva 

 and the surrounding deserts, and gave some of the best descriptions 

 of these countries to be found anywhere. For some years he was 

 very much interested in economic zoology, especially in the breed- 

 ing of domestic birds. As professor he was e.xceedingly popular, 

 and some of his pupils have already done good work. 



The results of the past ' geographical campaign ' were not bril- 

 liant, as no first-class geographical expedition was in the field. It 

 is to be hoped the current year may give more. General Prejeval- 

 sky is here, and hopes to start again for Tibet in August or Sep- 

 tember, 1888, to equip the expedition, buy camels at Karakol, near 

 Lake Issyk-Keel, and then go via eastern Turkestan. A money- 

 grant from the government will certainly not be refused for his ex- 

 pedition, on account of the high scientific character and political 

 importance of the former. 



He has brought with him the manuscript of the narrative of 

 his fourth journey, which is soon to be published. As to the special 

 reports on botany, zoology, etc., they are in the hands of specialists, 

 and some of them will take considerable time. 



Potanin is now at Irkutsk, having accepted the position of secre- 

 tary of the East Siberian branch of the Russian Geographical Soci- 

 ety. He is occupied in writing the report of his last extensive 

 journey to western China, Mongolia, etc., and is not likely to start 

 very soon on a new expedition. 



As to the work of the Russian Polar Commission, the report on 

 terrestrial magnetism at Sagastyr, at the mouth of the Lena, will 

 soon be issued, while the additional observations will not be issued 

 until some years later. The reason is. Lieutenant Jurgens has been 

 ordered to embark for Vladivostok, and will have no time for the 

 discussion of the Sagastyr observations for two or three years. 



The council of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society have 

 decided to grant money for the fall expedition in 1888 : Kousnezow 

 to the northern Caucasus, Kossikow to the south-western Caucasus. 

 Both will study the glaciers. The latter goes principally for stud- 

 ies on mammals and birds. Adrianow will go to the Altai, Colonel 

 Grombtschewsky to the Pamir, Listow to the Crimea, where he did 

 good work in 1887. An expedition which is not entirely decided upon 

 is that of the astronomer Baklund, and geologist Kudriawtsew to 

 the Kola Peninsula. The geologist Iwanow, well known for his 

 explorations of the Pamir, is to start in a few days for Vladivostok, 

 for a two-years' exploration of the vicinity, the Sichota-Alin Moun- 

 tains, and southern part of theUssuri basin, the principal aim being 

 the discovery and exploration of coal-mines. 



The Meteorological Commission of the Geographical Society is 

 doing good work, and now organizing some stations which will 

 make observations which may be useful to agriculture ; viz., actino- 

 metric, and on the temperature of the soil from the surface to a 

 depth of two metres. The most interesting of these stations is that 

 proposed at Sultan-Bend, on the Murghab River, south of Merv, 

 where a great dam is to be built across the river, and the water re- 

 tained to irrigate 300,000 hectares of the most fertile land. Exten- 

 sive cotton-culture is contemplated on the land thus redeemed from 

 barrenness, as in that country no culture is possible without artifi- 

 cial irrigation. 



The depression of agriculture and low prices are the topic of the 

 day, and often discussed in more or less learned societies ; but it 

 would be difficult to give a brief account of them, and most of the 

 discussion is of no scientific value. 



The season from January to the middle of March has been a 

 rigorous one also in the north of Russia. The frosts were remark- 

 able for their persistency more than for their rigor. From the 7th 

 of January to the 22d of March there was no thaw at St. Peters- 

 burg, yet the air-temperature did not sink below — 29" C. It fell 

 much lower in February, 1867 ( — 33.5°); January, 1868 ( — 38.0°); 

 February, 1871 ( — 36.3°); and December, 1876 ( — 37.6°). It sank 

 below — 30° even in March, 1867 and 1877.' For many days in 

 January, February, and March the coldest region was southern and 

 central Finland, the cyclones passing south of it. Thus in the 

 north we did not have the fearful snow-storms which were experi- 

 enced nearer to the centre of the cyclones in central and southern 



^ In all these cases not the minimum temperature, but the lo 

 by observations made thrice a day, are given. 



; of those obsep 



