242 



SCIENCE. 



[Vol. XI. No. 276 



Southern Pacific Railroad (here running midway between the Sierra 

 and the lake), the earliest border of that basin, distant quite four- 

 teen miles from the lake-shore as recorded on the maps, but which 

 itself is now several miles inland from the water's edge. The rail- 

 road and Tulare City lie on a belt of sandy land, obviously some- 

 what higher in level than the ' black lands,' and here about eight 

 miles wide. In crossing this belt to the eastward we traverse sev- 

 ■eral bands of 'alkali land,' characterized by the dense growth of 

 Brizopy7-jim, or ' alkali-grass,' and evidently forming a summit 

 plateau on the divide between the Tuiare basin proper and the ex- 

 treme southern branch of the delta bayous ' of the Kaweah River, 

 called ' Outside Creek,' or Elk Bayou. Approaching this water- 

 course, we again come to a 'black-lands' belt, about three miles 

 wide, which borders the bayou on both sides, and evidently rep- 

 resents an estuary of the time when Tulare Lake was much higher 

 than now, and the Kaweah delta bayous were mere swamps. An- 

 other 'alkali-land' belt is crossed after traversing the 'black- 

 lands ' of Outside Creek, towards the foot-hills : beyond these, lies 

 a narrow sandy belt corresponding to that along the railroad, as 

 above described. Then, at a distance of some eight miles from the 

 foot-hills, the color of the soil begins to change toward the well- 

 known red tint of the soils resulting from the decomposition of the 

 •' bedrock ' slates of the foot-hills ; but the ascent is so gradual that 

 to the eye the plain appears as level as ever, although the presence 

 •of the ferric hydrate in the soil proves that these ' red lands ' were 

 never submerged for any great length of time, since otherwise their 

 iron would have been reduced and leached out, or gathered into 

 "black gravel' (bog-orej, as is the case in the ' black lands' of the 

 lake and bayou borders. On inquiry, it was learned that all the 

 larger streams of the region^ (including Tule River and Deer Creek, 

 outside of the Kaweah delta) are accompanied by belts of such 

 ' black land.' 



Besides these main bayous, there appear in the sandy lands a 

 'few obvious sandy channels, usually dry, but carryingwater in time 

 ■of flood. 



But a curious and at present very striking demonstration of the 

 ancient drainage system of the region may be seen in the grain- 

 fields. In consequence of the failure of the usual April rains, most 

 ■of the wheat-fields of the region are now in a very precarious con- 

 dition where not irrigated, and much of the wheat sown will not 

 ■even make hay. Its condition is best on the ' black lands,' and in 

 certain portions of the sandy belt that do not show any obvious 

 ■difference in soil from adjoining tracts in which the crop is already 

 ■dried up without having been able to form grain in the ears. The 

 eye quickly recognizes the extraordinary resemblance of the out- 

 lines of the dead portions to meandering water-channels, but no 

 ■difference of surface-level remains to indicate the fact. But, by 

 •digging in any part of these meandering belts of desolation, we find 

 the sandy soil becoming sandier as we descend, until finally, at 

 -about three feet depth, an almost pure, coarse sand underlies, which 

 ■obviously cannot raise moisture within reach of the root system. On 

 the adjacent land, where the wheat is still green and growing, we 

 ■find at the same depth a subsoil of increased closeness and capil- 

 lary power, which keeps the moisture below within reach of the 

 -roots. 



Thus a bird's-eye-view photograph taken of this region now, 

 would show, traced out in minute detail by the color-contrast be- 

 tween the living and the dead grain, the ancient drainage of the 

 country, of which its surface at present shows no indication, to- 

 gether with the broad bands of the ancient estuaries that have formed 

 the ' black lands,' characterized by green, growing grain or an ex- 

 traordinarily luxuriant growth of oaks, that likewise outlines the 

 ancient margin of Lake Tulare. 



We thus obtain a chapter of the geological history of the valley 

 from a mere reconnaissance such as any one desiring to invest in 

 its lands would need to make. The significance of the ' alkali 

 lands ' in both points of view remains for a future discussion. 



It is hardly necessary to dwell upon the interest attaching to the 

 ■study of these features, whether from a practical or a purely scien- 



1 It should be understood that the Kaweah River, emerging from a canon of the 

 Sierra next to southward of King's River, divides into a number of forks or 

 bayous immediately upon entering the valley plain. The e.xtensive delta region thus 

 formed is one of the richest, as well as the only forest-grown area of the great valley 

 ■of California. 



tific Standpoint. One point, however, should be specially noted ; 

 namely, that a great many of the characteristic marks of these late 

 quaternary events are rapidly disappearing before the advance of 

 cultivation, and the re|)lacement of the native plant-growth fthe re- 

 sult of secular co-adaptation of soils and plants) and of the natural 

 surface by the well-known results of agricultural operations. The 

 latter are already obliterating, on large tracts, the singular ' hog- 

 wallow ' mounds that form so striking a feature and so difficult a 

 problem, the solution of which must largely depend upon the geo- 

 graphical distribution of these swarms of mammillary elevations. 



It is hard to see on what ground the study of these latest phe- 

 nomena, connecting the present with the immediate geological past, 

 should be deferred until it is too late to complete the record, by giving 

 precedence altogether to the ancient formations. The rocks and 

 fossils of the older formations will remain undisturbed forages, as in 

 the past, awaiting the leisure of the student of geology ; while the 

 delicate tracings of the latest pre-modern epochs are liable to fade 

 away rapidly before the advancing settlement of the country. Nor 

 can it be maintained that the processes that gave them birth, and 

 which are still active in the formation of soils, are not scientifically, as 

 well as practically, at least of equal interest with those that formed the 

 older rocks. It is true that their study does not offer the easy re- 

 wards of the naming of new fossils, minerals, and rocks, which in 

 times not yet belonging to the far past seemed to be the chief aim 

 of students of geology ; but they are none the less worthy of the 

 highest scientific effort, and their practical results bear on products 

 of an importance at least as great as those of the richest mines. 



E. W. HlLG.\RD. 

 Berkeley, Cal., May i. 



Queries. 



33. Human Beings as Pack-Animals. — In studying the 

 history of transportation, I have ascertained that the first pack- 

 animals were human beings, — men and women. Long before any 

 of the animals were domesticated as beasts of burden, there were 

 common carriers moving vast quantities of merchandise about the 

 world. They toted (carried on the head); they hung great loads 

 to their foreheads by means of a strap connected with a pack, 

 wallet, basket, or frame on the back ; they ' shouldered ' their bur- 

 dens, with or without yokes, front and rear, on one shoulder (like 

 the Chinese) or on both shoulders (like the Dutch) ; they strapped 

 their primitive knapsacks to their shoulders ; they harnessed them- 

 selves to a load, as they did afterwards dogs, reindeer, horses, etc. 

 Now, I should also like to know how much a man can tote, how much 

 a woman can tote, and how long a time, without resting, the toting 

 may go on. I should also like to know how much a man or a woman 

 can carry in any particular manner, and how long a time the opera- 

 tion can be kept up without resting. The weight multiplied by the 

 time will give a rough unit of human endurance. I shall be ex- 

 tremely obliged to any one who will give me valuable information 

 on this subject. O. T. Mason. 



Washington, D.C., May ro. 



Answers. 



22. Wasp-Stings. — It is a fact not generally known, that, if 

 one holds his breath, wasps, bees, and hornets can be handled with 

 impunity. The skin becomes sting-proof, and holding the insect 

 by the feet, and giving her full liberty of action, you can see her 

 drive her weapon against the impenetrable surface with a force that 

 lifts her body with every stroke ; but, let the smallest quantity of 

 air escape from the lungs, and the sting will penetrate at once. I 

 have never seen an exception to this in twenty-five years' observa- 

 tion. I have taught young ladies with very delicate hands to aston- 

 ish their friends by the performance of this feat ; and I saw one so 

 severely stung as to require the services of a physician, through 

 laughing at a witty remark of her sister, forgetting that laughing 

 required breath. For a theory in explanation, I am led to believe 

 that holding the breath partially closes the pores of the skin. My 

 experiments in that direction have not been exact enough to be of 

 any scientific value, but I am satisfied that it very sensibly affects 

 the amount of insensible perspiration. W. L. WILDER. 



Somerville, Mass., May 7. 



