June 29, 1888.] 



SCIENCE. 



305 



■connection with such an American exposition would interest the 

 people more, and no other would be more instructive ; and it is 

 proposed or suggested by the Citizens' Committee that a great 

 archffiologic exhibit be made, and that each nation in North, Cen- 

 tral, and South America be invited to contribute its quota to this 

 great museum. The erection of an appropriate building for this 

 purpose, indestructible by fire, and of sufficient magnitude for the 

 instalment of so great a collection, would cost about five hundred 

 thousand dollars. The archjeologic materials to be found within 

 the territory of the United States are in part, but only in small 

 part, collected, and now in the National Museum ; and the time is 

 all too short for the completion of this collection, yet by beginning 

 soon it might be well done. 



" Such, in brief, is the plan which I was requested to present to 

 you by the Citizens' Committee. It is no less than to collect and 

 put on record for future generations the priceless records that con- 

 stitute the history of all the native American races. If this can be 

 •done, it will be a monument to these native peoples, erected by the 

 invading and conquering and civilizing nations, worthy of Aryan 

 power, and worthy of Aryan culture." 



WHEAT-CULTIVATION. 



In the last number of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural So- 

 ciety of England, the most interesting sections are those bearing 

 upon wheat-cultivation. A paper upon the condition ^of wheat- 

 growing in India, by Dr. George Watt, is followed by an article by 

 Mr. W. E. Bear upon the Indian wheat trade, and in this connec- 

 tion is given an interesting account of modern improvements in 

 ■corn-milling machinery. These papers throw considerable light 

 upon the difficulties under which the English wheat-grower is 

 struggling, and are commented on by Mr. Wrightingtonin a recent 

 number of Nature. 



Dr. Watt and Mr. Bear show the extraordinary extent of the 

 wheat-producing area of the Indian Empire, and the rapidity with 

 which this vast field is being opened up. With reference to the 

 latter point, men in middle life are scarcely likely to realize the fact 

 that in 1853 there were in all only 20J miles of railway in India, 

 that in 1873 there were 5,695 miles of railway, while in 1887 there 

 were 13,386 miles. Telegraphic communication with India was 

 first opened in 1865, and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1S69 

 was scarcely of less importance in developing her trade, first by 

 shortening the passage, and second by mitigating the risk from 

 wheat-weevil. Another agency has been the development of irri- 

 gation-works. We read that " only " 30,000,000 acres have up to 

 •date been artificially irrigated ; but the appropriateness of the 

 qualifying adverb is rendered evident when it is employed in con- 

 trast with the total area of 200,000,000 acres of cultivated ground, 

 and the vast tract of 868,314 square miles which include British 

 India. The normal area under wheat is 26,000,000 acres, and the 

 •degree to which this area is likely to be increased depeiids entirely 

 upon demand and price. Dr. Watt informs us that the Indian 

 cultivator is at all times ready to adapt his courses of cropping to 

 circumstances, and that he will increase or abandon the cultivation 

 of wheat, cotton, or any other crop according to its comparative 

 profitableness. 



Dr. Watt comes to the conclusion that the Indian wheat trade 

 •up to the present time is a perfectly natural one. " The people are 

 exporting only what they specially cultivate for that purpose. The 

 moment better profits can be realized on another crop, they will 

 turn from wheat, without being in the least degree incommoded." 

 If this is the case, the English farmer may well look with envy upon 

 his Indian brother, as he is in the unfortunate position of being 

 compelled to carry on wheat-growing from sheer inability to find a 

 substitute for it in his agricultural economy. Natural though the 

 course of the ryot may be from his point of view, the actual bounty 

 upon wheat, or what amounts to a bounty, consequent upon the 

 fall in value of the rupee, can scarcely be described as natural. 

 This great advantage to the Indian cultivator is clearly brought out 

 by Mr. Bear by the following considerations : First, the Indian ryot 

 gets as much for a quarter of his wheat now as he obtained in 1872. 

 He gets as many rupees, and his rupees are worth as much to him 

 as they were then. In 1871-72 the average exchange value of the 



rupee was is. ii.i2d., whereas recently it has been under is. jd. 

 The price of No. 2 club wheat in Calcutta in 1872 averaged only 

 2rs. 3a. I p. per maund, whereas it has for some time past been 

 over 2rs. loa. Taking i6rs. per quarter (6 maunds) as the price 

 for both periods, then reckoning the exchange value of the rupee 

 for both periods, it is clear that the exchange value of i6rs. in 1872 

 was equal to 30s. 8d. per quarter, whereas the exchange value of 

 the same sum in 1888 is only 22s. 8d. The fact is that the Indian 

 ryot gets as much for a quarter of wheat now as he did in 1872, in 

 spite of the fall in prices. He gets as many rupees, and his rupees 

 are worth as much to him. This seems to settle the question as 

 to the encouragement given to the ryot as a competitor in wheat- 

 growing with the English farmer. Another point, in all respects 

 discouraging to the cultivation of wheat in England, is found in the 

 complete revolution during the last ten years in corn-milling 

 machinery described by Mr. W. Proctor Baker of Bristol. There 

 has been, in fact, not a mere substitution of one machine for an- 

 other, or of one series of machines for another, but there has been 

 a change of the principle and mode of procedure. The old system 

 of ' low grinding ' by mill-stones, so well calculated for producing 

 flour from soft, tender wheats, such as are produced in England, 

 has been entirely superseded by the Hungarian and American 

 ' gradual reduction ' process by ' roller mills.' Not only does this 

 system require the wheat to be dry, hard, and brittle, so as to secure 

 the requisite cracking and gradual reduction, but any thing in the 

 form of a soft or moist wheat is most injurious to the machinery 

 and the products. It rolls into a paste, steam is generated, and the 

 flour works into balls, becomes attached to the rollers, turns sour, 

 and, in fact, throws the entire process out of gear. " It is because 

 of these troubles that owners of mills on a large scale will not em- 

 ploy native wheats in damp seasons. No concession of price is 

 sufficient inducement to them to risk the disorganization of the 

 mill, and probable loss of reputation, by turning out inferior or ir- 

 regular flour." There are, however, two modes in which these 

 wheats may be used, — first, by submitting them to an artificial 

 drying process ; and, second, by mixing them with some descrip- 

 tion of very brittle wheat, and allowing the mixture to lie for some 

 weeks, until the brittle wheat absorbs some of the moisture of the 

 native wheat, to the mutual advantage of both. 



THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY. 



The new laboratory is at Wood's Holl, Mass. A convenient 

 site has been secured close to the shore and to the laboratories of 

 the United States Fish Commission. The laboratory building con- 

 sists of two stories ; the lower story for the use of students receiv- 

 ing instruction, the upper story exclusively for investigators. The 

 laboratory will have boats, dredges, and other collecting apparatus ; 

 it will also be supplied with running sea-water, with alcohol and 

 other re-agents, glassware, microtomes, aquaria, etc., a limited 

 numbej; of microscopes for students' use, and a small reference 

 library. 



Dr. C. O. Whitman, the distinguished embryologist, has accepted 

 the directorship ; and Mr. B. H. Van Vleck, who has had greater 

 experience than any one else in this country in the management of 

 summer seaside biological schools, has been appointed instructor. 

 Under these very competent officers, the laboratory will attract 

 probably more persons than can find accommodation ; nevertheless 

 it remains a matter of regret that the announcement of the opening 

 of the laboratory has been so much delayed, owing, we under- 

 stand, to some unavoidable difficulties in completing the prelimi- 

 nary arrangements. 



The laboratory for students will be opened on Tuesday, July 

 17, at 9 A.M., for a systematic course of six weeks in zoology. By 

 permission of the director, students may continue their work until 

 Sept. 20 without additional payment. Microscopes, glass-ware, 

 etc., will be supplied without extra charge except for breakage. 

 Hand lenses, dissecting instruments, drawing materials, etc., may 

 be bought at cost in the laboratory. It is desired that students 

 owning microscopes should bring them. 



The fee for this course is twenty-five dollars. The number of 

 students will be limited to twenty-five. 



The laboratory for investigators will be opened on July 10, and 



