February io, 1892.] 



Garden and Forest. 



71 



colored in the sunlight, while the other portion, hidden under 

 an overlapping leaf, is still quite green. 



Usually each species of tree or shrub assumes the same tints 

 each autumn, varying in degree only according as the season 

 is favorable or not. But some species sport considerably, 

 sometimes being arrayed in orange or parti-colored livery, in- 

 stead of yellow, or red or purple. The Sugar Maple, the Sassa- 

 fras, the Buckeye and the Sweet Gum are examples in point, 

 and also the Red Maple, the Shadbush, the Poison Ivy and the 

 Poison Dogwood. Of all our native shrubs this last is surely 

 the most gorgeously arrayed in autumn. The niost noxious 

 plant in all our woods may thus be charged with " stealing the 

 livery of Heaven to serve the devil in." 



When the Sugar Maple shows a strongly reddish tinge it is a 

 pretty sure indication of starvation or disease. It often hap- 

 pens that some branch is affected while the others are healthy, 

 and thus it will become prematurely and strongly colored while 

 the others are yet green. The leaf of the Sugar Maple is often 

 remarkably veined and variegated, the striping and mottling 

 being sometimes so bold and strong as to resemble the figures 

 on the wings of butterflies. On the same tree or branch leaves 

 of this kind may be found along with others having all shades 

 of yellow or orange or russet. 



The White Ash ripens through a curious range of colors un- 

 like any other tree. The green leaf darkens to chocolate and 

 purple, and then turning to violet gradually lightens to brown 

 and yellow. Several of the Oaks have also rare shades of red, 

 russet and tan. As the tissue of all Oak-leaves is too thick to 

 let much sunlight pass through, these colors seem at a dis- 

 tance duller than they appear at short range. Semi-transparent 

 leaves show off to the best advantage in autumn, as the sun- 

 beam makes crimson leaves seem scarlet, russet leaves golden, 

 and lightens every hue in like manner. 



Our ornamental plantations make little impression on the 

 general landscape. Of the many trees and shrubs in ordinary 

 cultivation a large proportion are of European origin, and very 

 few are notable for the color of their autumn foliage. As already 

 stated, most of them are harmed by frost in this latitude be- 

 fore the foliage has had time to ripen fully. The Norway Maple 

 is perhaps the most notable exception to the rule. When the 

 season is favorable it fairly rivals its near relative, the Sugar 

 Maple. The Horse-chestnut turns yellow in a favorable sea- 

 son or situation, but its foliage is often prematurely seared by 

 heat or drought or browned by fungi. One other European 

 plant, the Smoke-bush, assumes a strong ruddy tint, showing 

 thus its blood relationship to our Sumachs, a family of plants 

 all notable for the crimson hues of their dying foliage, and also 

 for the various dyes and varnishes and tannic acids obtained 

 by draining their veins after death. 



We have in cultivation many trees and shrubs from China 

 and Japan, all of which likewise retain their foliage later than 

 the related species indigenous here. Consequently few of 

 them have the opportunity in this latitude to show the bright 

 colors they occasionally display further south. But the Plum- 

 leaved Spirsea, and the creeper called usually Japanese Ivy, 

 show brilliant shades of red if the season be favorable. The 

 rich variegation and strong contrast of colors exhibited by this 

 so-called Ivy are very striking, because the foliage shows 

 simultaneously every stage of the ripening process from the 

 growing twig to the dropping leaves. Its cousin, the Virginia 

 Creeper, sheds all its foliage a month sooner, its crimson tinge 

 being remarkably strong and uniform over the whole plant. 

 Two foreign coniferous trees, the Larch and the Maiden-hair, 

 that, unlike the Pines, shed their leaves in autumn, change to 

 a bright yellow, and are very conspicuous in a favorable sea- 

 son. Another tree of this family, the Bald Cypress of the south- 

 ern states, is equally notable for its ruddy tinge. 



But the fresh verdure which many foreign plants exhibit, 

 for weeks later than species of the same genera indigenous 

 here, is some compensation for the lack of high color on 

 their immature leaves. This livel)"" and lasting green affords 

 a fine contrast to the autumn coloring of all our native foliage 

 already dying or dead. Some of these plants have a sub-ever- 

 green character, and are but slightly tarnished by frost until 

 perhaps the middle of December, as may be noticed on all the 

 Japanese Privets and Honeysuckles. When finally all the de- 

 ciduous trees have shed their leaves, the foliage of the ever- 

 green Spruces, Pines and Cedars becomes conspicuous, but 

 generally its aspect is too sombre to be specially attractive, un- 

 til it becomes heightened by contrast with the snows of winter. 



In conclusion, some notice should, perhaps, be taken of the 

 herbaceous foliage of our fields and by-ways in autumn. Strong- 

 shades of yellow are common, and some others are reddish 

 purple, most notably the Poke-weed, the strong crimson dyes 

 of which must be familiar to all of you. In our eastern and 



northern swamps the Cranberry-vines are often remarkably 

 ruddy, and in the sea-side marshes the Samphire may be seen 

 in autumn in large patches, that attract the eye a long way off 

 by the intense crmison of the leafless stems, which are brighter 

 in color than any foliage of either forest or field. 



HOW TO OBTAIN MORE HIGH-GRADE FRUIT. 



This subject was treated by Mr. George T. Powell in a 

 practical address, from which we make the following extracts : 

 " We cannot plant young orchards in land from which we have 

 taken continued crops of grain and grass for years, and while 

 the trees are growing continue to take off potatoes, oats and 

 grass for fifteen or twenty years longer, and then hope to se- 

 cure full crops of good fruit. The trees must be well planted 

 in the first place, with roots pruned back to half their length 

 and the top cut in quite as severely. The branches of a nur- 

 sery tree are not where they are needed ; often two of them 

 are nearly opposite, which will make the tree liable to split 

 apart. Therefore, it is good practice to take off the top en- 

 tirely, leaving only buds on the main trunk where the future 

 branches are desired. When trees are thus prepared for plant- 

 ing pruning for the next ten years can be done with a pocket- 

 knife, and the fruit and foliage will be where they are needed. 

 Since the foliage plays so important a part in preparing plant- 

 food for use a good growth of leaves should always be ensured. 

 It is of little consequence to use poisons against insects that 

 devour fruit, and fungus diseases which destroy fruit, when 

 the leaves are left to be infested with insects and parasites. 

 Since I have sprayed the foliage of my orchards good Spitzen- 

 burgs can be grown once more. Before they were treated in 

 this way these trees set full of fruit, but they never matured 

 into large handsome apples. Healthy wood and healthy 

 foliage are essential to vigorous fruit-buds and perfect fruit. 

 There is a demand abroad, which has never been supplied, for 

 fruit of high quahty. In the Old World flavor counts for more 

 than appearance. Every barrel of Ben Davis apples we send 

 abroad depreciates the value of the best American apples." 



THE TOXICOLOGY OF THE COPPER COMPOUNDS WHEN APPLIED 

 AS FUNGICIDES. 



After considering the chemistry of the copper compounds, 

 the form in which they appear on the grapes, and giving a 

 careful review of the opinions of leading chemists and medi- 

 cal authorities here and abroad. Professor Fairchild gave the 

 following conclusions, based upon his examinations of grapes 

 from the Hudson River district, where the largest amounts of 

 copper were used : 



I. The danger from the daily absorption of small quantities 

 of copper salts with foods has been greatly exaggerated. The 

 poisonous nature of such doses is noj only not proven, hut is 

 denied by eminent authorities, whose views are supported by 

 abundant evidence. 



3. Grapes sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture according to 

 the directions of the department in their latest publications 

 cannot possibly contain more than 35.1000 of a grain of copper 

 to a pound of grapes in the bunch, which amount is less than 

 one-tenth of the amount contained in a pound of ordinary beef- 

 liver, and absolutely inoffensive to the human system. 



3. The insoluble form in which the salt of copper occurs 

 upon the clusters, and the fact that the consumers do not eat 

 the skins nor stems, places the mixture further sfiU from sus- 

 picion. 



4. The use of a reduced formula for the Bordeaux mixture, 

 containing only two pounds of copper sulphate in place of six, 

 and the substitution of the ordinary ammoniacal solution for 

 the latest treatments immediately before ripening, will place 

 the practice beyond the slightest possible suspicion. 



Dr. Van Slyke, who analyzed the grapes from the Hudson 

 River district, from which the grapes causing the trouble in 

 the New York market came, gave the results of his analysis, 

 some of which were not worked out in time to incorporate 

 them in Professor Fairchild's paper. 



The amount found on the grapes was very constant, vary- 

 ing from 3^5 to ilo grain per pound of fruit and stems. Phy- 

 sicians give one-fourth grain doses of copper as a tonic and 

 astringent. Three thousand pounds, stems and all, would have 

 to be eaten to get a dangerous amount of copper. The cop- 

 per does not occur in the form of sulphate on the fruit, but as 

 carbonate, which is not nearly so soluble. 



Notes. 



According to the Dolgeville Herald there were 300,000,000 

 feet of timber cut last year in the Adirondack forests. Two- 

 thirds of this was made into lumber and the remainder into 



