xiii Appendix. 



natural position, in order to put the strain upon some other part of its 

 body ; it either aits upon the back edge of the seat and rests its chest 

 against the edge of the desk, or throws the weight of the head and shoulders 

 upon the arm put between the body and the edge of the desk, both of them 

 unhealthy positions, as they compress the lungs and prevent their free 

 action, besides forming more or less of an angle in the back. If the child 

 has to read a book placed on a desk at too great a distance, it sits on the 

 edge of the seat, and soon becomes tired, when what I have just described is 

 sure to happen ; or the child will rest its chin upon its hands, and thus tend 

 to elevate its shoulders in an unnatural manner. In no school in the city 

 have I found backs to the seats ; and the distance between the seat and the 

 desk varies in different schools. In most, it is, I think, too great, certainly 

 to allow the child to be comfortable while writing. The distance being so 

 great, the child must of necessity sit upon the very edge of the form, a 

 most tiring position ; or if it sits upon the seat so that half the length of 

 the thigh is supported by the seat, it must lean forward so as to make with 

 its back an angle of about 45°. These defects could be overcome by having 

 the seat broad enough to support at least two-thirds of the thigh, and the 

 height of the seat such as to allow the sole of the foot to rest comfortably 

 on the ground ; the edge of the desk should be above and perpendicular to 

 the front edge of the seat, and just high enough to allow the elbow to rest 

 upon it without pushing up the shoulder. The angle at which the desk 

 should be is also an important point. Dr. Liebreich, who has written upon 

 this subject, says, that to ensm'e as much ease as possible to the eye, they 

 should have an inclination for reading of about 40°, for writing 20°. In 

 order to answer both these requirements, he has suggested a desk, which, 

 by a very simple contrivance, gives the desired position for reading and 

 writing. 



The ordinary kind of back generally put on to forms is not that which 

 should be copied for school seats. It is usually too high, catching the 

 person seated across the shoulders, and leaving the lower part of the back 

 and spine unsupported. In weak persons the tendency is to bow the back 

 outward, because the ligaments and muscles of the lower part of the spine 

 get tired, and can no longer support the body. The proper kind of back 

 for school seats is a strong, not very wide, piece of wood projectmg straight 

 up, or if inclined, with only a slight inclination backward ; the height must 

 vary somewhat according to the length of back of the child, it being neces- 

 sary to support the lower third of the back, or up to the level of the waist. 

 In some parts of America so much importance is attached to the subject of 

 desks, seats, and backs, that every child has its own made for it, unless 

 there are any perfectly suited to its height in the school to which it is sent. 



