10 34 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 



which have been found are exceedingly ancient, antedating by a long way 

 the well-known querns, and are probably Neolithic. 1 Coming to the Bronze 

 Age, we find socketed sickles of the later portion of this period (possibly 900- 

 800 B.C.) fairly common in this country, 2 which show that the cultivation of 

 grain was widespread. Plant-remains from the Irish lake-dwellings or inter- 

 ments unfortunately do not help us here ; seeds have seldom been identified 

 from them, nor have these been correlated with the objects associated with 

 them ; where walnuts and beech-nuts are mentioned in the same breath with 

 bronze implements 3 it is clearly hopeless to pursue inquiry. 



When we enter on the historic period, we find the cultivation of cereals an 

 important occupation of the people. Early Irish literature abounds in names 

 of grains — coirce (oats), cruithnecht and tuirenn (wheat), ith and arba, arbar 

 (corn), eorna (barley), segal (rye) ; some of these words carrying us back to 

 the Old-Irish period (seventh to tenth century), 4 and being without question 

 much older than that. 5 



O'Donovan, again, quotes a poem in which mills are mentioned, and the 

 grinding of oats and wheat, written about 651 a.d. ; and he gives other 

 instances of the early prevalence of agriculture in Ireland. 



It is clear that from this point of approach very little that is definite is 

 to be learned concerning the standing of the many dubious plants now 

 found in our cultivated land ; there can be little doubt that most of 

 them are very early introductions. But if we work back from the present, 

 we are in a more advantageous position. To do this we take the existing 

 flora, and from careful observation of the habitats and distribution of the 

 constituent species we can in many cases form an opinion as to their history 

 and standing. And a test which will in many cases help us in the forming 

 of a conclusion is to consider, in the ease of each species of doubtful standing, 

 what would happen to it, so far as we can judge, were the influence of man 

 even now withdrawn. 



It is essential for clear understanding that we should define what we 

 mean by such terms as " native " or " indigenous," as compared with " alien," 

 " introduction," and so on. "Native" is used here in its strict sense. "A 

 species is only held to be native," says Dunn, 7 " in a natural locality to which 



1 I am indebted to Mr. George Coffey and Mr. E. C. R. Armstrong for notes on this subject. 



2 W. R. Wilde : Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities of stone, earthen, and vegetable 

 materials in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, p. 526. 1857. 



3 W. G. Wood-Martin : The Lake-Dwellings of Ireland, p. 73. 1886. 



4 I have to thank Prof. Carl Marstrander and Mr. R. I. Best for these notes. 



6 This subject is treated more fully in Prof. Wilson's report on Agriculture (Clare Island Survey, 

 part 5), published since the above was written. 



6 John O'Donovan: Antiquity of Corn in Ireland. Dublin Penny Journal, i., 108-110, 282- 

 283. 1832-33. 



' S. T. Draw : Alien Flora of Britain, p. x. 1905. 



