710 CHARLES PauL ALEXANDER 
of the measuring worms (Geometridae), progression being accomplished by the aid of the 
mandibles and the ventral tubercles, or pseudopodia. In a quiescent condition the thoracic 
region of the body has a noticeable humped appearance. The fully grown larvae are very 
sluggish and inactive. When disturbed they relax their hold on the leaf surface and fall 
tothe ground. Altho several hundred adults were reared, not a single parasite was discovered. 
Before pupation the larva attaches itself firmly to the surface of the leaf or to the leef 
petiole, by means of its anal pseudopodia. The skin splits transversely behind but is only 
partially sloughed off. The head, the thorax, and the first four abdominal segments of the 
pupa are exposed, but the apex of the abdomen remains encased in the larval skin, tke 
terminal part of which, collapsed and wrinkled, is attached to the leaf surface. Pupation 
may take place on either the upper or the lower surface, but it occurs oftener on the former. 
If pupation takes place on the petiole, it is generally at the axil. In the breeding cages the 
duration of the pupal period was found to vary from six to ten days. 
When the adult first emerges it is of a pale green color, which is gradually replaced by the 
black and yellow of the fully colored insect. From one and one-half to two hours 2re required 
for the adult to emerge. After emergence is completed, the fly rests for a short period 
until the cuticle hardens and the wings expand. It seems that the adherence of the larval 
skin to the pupa is necessary for the emergence of the adult, at least in many cases. There 
appears to be a large disproportion of females over males, this sometimes being as high as 
five to one. Since a single male may copulate with several females, this disproportion is 
not so serious as it appears at first sight. 
LIFE ACTIVITIES OF CRANE-FLIES 
The adult 
Emergence.— Emergence from the pupal hull may require but a few 
seconds (as described for Gnophomyia by Hyslop zn litt., the whole operation 
requiring but eight seconds), or.it may take several hours. The emergence 
of the strictly aquatic genus Antocha has not been observed, but it must be 
practically instantaneous as in Blepharocera and the lotic caddice flies. 
Mating.— In several widely different species, the females as they emerge 
from the pupal hulls are at once seized in copulation by the males altho 
they are still callow and uncolored. Mik (1882b:40, and 1886a) discusses 
this curious condition in considerable detail. In all the cases that are 
known to the writer — Dicranomyia trinotata, Discobola caesarea, and 
Cylindrotoma distinctissima (Mik, 1886a, the last-named also cited by Mik, 
1882 b), Liogma glabrata (Miiggenberg, 1901), Tipula rufina (Giard, 1895), 
and Tipula ultima (Caudell, 1913)—the abdomen of the female is 
elongate, flabby, and nearly colorless. In Dicranomyia trinotata the 
females scarcely have time to remove their legs from the pupal sheaths 
before they are seized in copulation. In other cases the males emerge 
before the females and wait beside the pupae for the emergence of 
their mates, when they at once seize them in copula. In most species 
of Tipula the males, when seeking the females, progress by a fluttering 
