LOGIN NOKTH-INDIAK GEOt-OGICAL CHANGES. 191 



nations therefore going on at the present day, it would be hopeless 

 to attempt fixing any lapse of time for any individual deposit ; but 

 "we must rather take it as a whole. But before going into this 

 branch of the subject, it is proper here to state that at about a dozen 

 mQes below the hills, where these torrents have about as many feet 

 of faU in the mile, or more, it is no uncommon thing to see clay 

 boulders rolling down the beds of the streams ; and these boulders 

 are often studded with small stones stuck aU round them. The 

 floods being not of long duration, have not time to wear down and 

 mix this stiff clay in the water ; and the slope being great, and the 

 stream rapid, these lumps of clay cut out of a stiff bank higher up the 

 course, are thus rolled down ; and as here shingle often occurs in the 

 bed, the small stones stick to the clay and are carried down the 

 stream. Having, it is hoped, given an idea of what is now going on, 

 it may be as well for me to recapitulate some of the most important 

 points at this stage before going further. 



1st. It is probable that the total rainfall now is as it was 2000 

 years ago, but that it has undergone local changes, being less over 

 the plains and more along the southern face of the Himalayas 

 throughout the Punjab. 



2nd. That the eft'ect of this is that the rainfall has become less 

 general both as to time and space ; for if the air only parts with its 

 moisture on reaching the hills, the chief rainfall can only be during 

 the S.E. Monsoon. Hence the floods must be more intense than 

 formerly, and consequently bring down proportionally larger quan- 

 tities of sand than clay. From this we may safely conclude that 

 there must be : — 



1st. A lowering of the spring-levels. 



2nd. A drying up of perennial streams. 



3rd. A larger area covered with sand every year by the floods. 



4th. More time to blow hade the sand thus brought down by the 

 floods over the surface of the country ; or, in other words, the desert 

 is encroaching rather than retrograding, from want of moisture. 



If asked why is this ? I should say that the only reason I can 

 assign is centuries on centuries of bad and unsettled government, 

 when every one cut down trees, but no man planted any. To meet 

 this difficulty, we should by " Tuccavie advances " aid the villagers 

 to store up water as formerly ; and belts of trees some 200 yards 

 broad should be planted every 5 miles and run parallel to the hills. 

 The first line would probably begin some 10 miles south of UmbaUa, 

 passing a little south of Loodiana, Umritsur, and Goojtanwalla, 

 ending on the Jhelum a few mUes north of Pind Dadun Khan. It 

 may, and probably would, be many years before any observable 

 change could take place in the climate ; but I think there is every 

 reason to suppose that if trees could be thus got to grow, what with 

 the aid of irrigation-canals, and the minor irrigation-works above 

 indicated, the intense heat of summer and cold in winter would be 

 moderated, while the rainfall would become more general. 



This general idea of what is now taking place in this part of India 

 will, it is hoped, be found of assistance in explaining in what manner 



