42 



GULF STREAM EXPI;ORATION.— RAILROAD TRAFFIC IN GREAT BRITAIN. 



[1854. 



M. Vicat is preparing a memoir, in wliich he will attempt to explain 

 the nature of the chemical constitution of those silicates which arc 

 durable, compared with those which are not ; and which will show the 

 preponderating influence of silica in such phenomena. He will also 

 point out a simple and certain method of classifying all such compounds, 

 as to their iitness or not for submarine constructions, and thus will 

 assist in very much shortening the time necessary at present for test- 

 ting them by exposure to the action of sea-water. From the great 

 practical importance of the subject, and the attention at present 

 directed to it, this memoir will be looked foward to with considerable 

 interest. — Comptes Rendits de I' Academic, No. 4. January, 1854. 



Giiir stream E^xploratioiia 



This great and singular peculiarity, embracing in its mighty sweei\ 

 our entire Atlantic offshore vicinage, is so important to navigation and 

 so essential a feature of our coast hydrogi-aphy, both in its practical 

 and scientific character, that its thorough exploration ought certainly 

 to form an integral part of the Coast Survey, whence our offshore charts 

 are all to be derived. A specific and complete delineation and theory 

 of this unique oceanic movement can only be reached as a result of 

 elaborate and continued observations on all its physical and phenomi- 

 ilal elements. This giant problem is thrown down as a gage at our 

 national door, and the honour code of philosophic chivalry bids us 

 accept the challenge. With a clear perception of the requirements of 

 this great research, Prof. Bache in 1845 organized and began the exe- 

 cution of a plan of operations, whicli provided for running a system of 

 perpendicular sections across the axis of the stream from selected 

 points cf the coast and observing at frequent stations along these sec- 

 tions, the several elements required. Between 184-5 and 1848, sections 

 were run from Montauk Point, Sandy Hook, Cape Henlopen, Cape 

 Henry, and Cape Hatteras ; when from accidents and other hindrances, 

 the work was intermitted until in 1853, when sections were run from 

 Cape Hatteras, Cape Fear, Charleston, St. Simons, St. Augustine, and 

 Cape Canaveral. The results for 1853 are given in a sketch of detailed 

 sections, and a general delineation of the Gulf Stream in its several 

 component bands or threads, as thus far determined, will be found 

 among the sketches. Over six pages of the Pveport are devoted to a 

 full exposition of the results already reached. 



The element of temperature, superficial and at various depths, has 

 been chiefly observed up to this time ; the instruments used being Six's 

 registering thermometer for moderate depths and Saxton's metallic 

 deep-sea thermometer, for the greater depths, a temperatui-e sounding 

 cf 2160 fathoms having been made. One general result of the investi- 

 gation is that "there are alternations of temperature across, the Gulf 

 Stream, cold water intruding and dividing the warm, making thus 

 alternate streaks or streams of warm and cold water. In fact, the 

 Gulf Stream is merely one of a number of bands of warm water sepa- 

 rated by cold water." A "cold waU" limiting the Gulf Stream on the 

 shore side, is clearly made out, as also its slight shoreward slope from 

 the warm water overlying the cold. A distinct current of underlying 

 cold water from the northern regions is found alike in the northern and 

 southern sections. " It can hardly be doubted that this cold water off 

 our southern coast may be rendered practically useful by the ingenuity 

 of our countrymen. The bottom of the sea fourteen miles E. N. E. 

 from Cape Florida, 450 fathoms in depth, was in June, 1853, at the 

 temperatui-e of 49° Fahrenheit, while the air was 81° Fahrenheit. A 

 temperature of 38° (only six degrees above the freezing point of fresh 

 water) was found at 1050 fathoms in depth about 80 miles east of 

 Cape Canaveral. The mean temperature of the air at St. Augustine is 

 69° -9 Fahrenheit, and for the three 57°-5. The importance of the facts 

 above stated in reference to the natui-al history of the ocean in these 

 regions, is very great, but, of course, requires to be studied in connec- 

 tion with other physical data. It has also a bearing xipon the impor- 

 tant problems of the tides of the coast. This exploration of the Gulf 

 Sti-eam will be steadily prosecuted to its close, the different problems 

 being taken up in turn or in connexion as may be found practicable." 



The most remarkable fact brought to light in relation to the Gulf 

 Stream is probably that of the existence of two submarine ranges of 

 hills near its origin, which produced most marked effects on the distri- 

 bution of its parts. The form of the Charleston and Canaveral sec- 

 tions," as shown in the diagram, shoals gradually from the shore to 



, ^Extracts from a review of the Coast Sui-vey Report for 1853 in 

 Silliman's Journal for September. 



53 and 36 miles respectively, then suddenly falling off to below the 

 depth of 600 fathoms. On the Chaileston section, 96 miles from the 

 coast is a range of hills steep on the land side and having a height of 

 1800 feet and a base of about eleven miles on the seaward side; a 

 second range 136 miles from the coast, 1500 feet high, with a base of 

 about seventeen miles, on the outer side. Beyond this there is a more 

 gradual rise. On the Canaveral section the inner range is G8 miles from 

 the coast. The effect of this form of the bottom in forcing up the 

 deep cold water stratum is very marked, so that the deep isothermals 

 of section, exhibited a general conlormity to the bottom cui've. It is 

 undoubtedly due in a considerable degree to these submarine hill- 

 ranges, and to their uplifting of the cold water, that the Gulf Stream 

 is divided into several superficial bands, though to what exact extent 

 and how far subject to variations remain to be studied. Horizontally, 

 the conformity of the Gulf Stream to the coastline configuration is veri- 

 fied even in detail, and its modifications by the variation of steepness 

 in the off-shore bottom slope, are strongl}' marked. "With these results 

 the names of Lieuts. Davis, George M. Bache, Pachard Bache, S. P. 

 Lee, Maffitt and Craven are conspicuously associated ; George M. Bache 

 being distinguished as a martyr to his zeal, in the very glow of talent, 

 hope and success. 



The results of the microscopic examinations of seventeen Gulf 

 Stream bottoms made by Assist. L. F. Pourtales (Appendix No. 30), 

 are of great interest. From these and many other investigations of 

 bottoms, he has derived the generalization that the per-centage of 

 shells, chiefly Foraminiferas, progressively increases with the depth, 

 and he remarks of a bottom from the depth of 1050 fathoms that it "is 

 no longer sand containing Foraminiferse, but Foraminiferte containing 

 little or no sand. The grains of sand have to be searched for carefully 

 under the microscope to be noticed at all." It will be seen that this 

 result coincides with Prof. Bailej^'s recent announcement, thus closely 

 linking the Gulf Stream bottoms with those of the remoter parts of the 

 Atlantic. Mr. Pourtales also somewhat examines the question whether 

 these minute animals lived where they were found, or have been gra- 

 dually washed down from the reefs. Though not decisive the evidence 

 inclines him to the opinion that they lived where found. This is indi- 

 cated by the fact that most of the individuals are found perfect, not- 

 withstanding the extreme delicacy of the shells, and again by the 

 delicate pink colour of the Globigerinse, which could scarcely survive 

 transportation. The fact of the occui'rence of the same species off the 

 New Jersey coast and off Cuba and other West India islands under 

 very dissimilar circumstances of light and temperatui'e is also indica- 

 tive that they are actually drawn from their true habitat in these Gulf 

 Stream soundings. Wr. Pourtales well remarks on the importance of 

 " a knowledge of the habitation and distribution of the Foraminiferaj" 

 to geologists, " since of all classes of the animal kingdom, none has 

 contributed so large a share to the formation of rocks, at least in the 

 cretaceous and tertiary formations." 



Kailroacl Traffic iu Great Britain aud Ireland* 



From the semi-annual returns of the British Board of Trade it appears 

 that the number of passengers conveyed on railways in England and 

 AVales, Scotland, andlreland, dui-ing the half-year ended 31st Dec, 1853, 

 was 57,206,344, of which 29,529,696, were parliamentary and thii-d 

 class; 20,634,682 second class; and 7,028,966 first class passengers. 

 The total receipts for passengers amounted to £4,821,686, of which the 

 sum of £62,061 was for periodical tickets, £1,534,863 parliamentary 

 and third class, £1,46,646 for second class, and £1,468,196 for the first 

 class passengers. As compared with the corresponding period of 1832, 

 the total increase in the number of passengers was 7,320,221, or 14.6 

 per cent., and in the receipts of £461 ,519, or 10.6 per cent.; of which 

 increase the sum of £7,449 was the periodical tickets, £173,962 for 

 parliamentary and third-class, £115,297 for second class, and £159,224 

 for first-class passengers. 



The total receipts from general merchandise, cattle, minerals, horses, 

 carriages, luggage, parcels and mails, amounted for the half-yeai' ending 

 31st December, 1853, to £5,023,904, and for the corresponding period 

 of 1852, to £4,154,836, showing an increase of £869,068, or 20.9 per 

 cent. 



The total receipts from all sources of traffic, amounted on 7,641 miles 

 of railway in the United Kingdom to £9,844,690, and for the corres- 

 ponding period of the year previous, on 7,336 miles of railway, to £8, 



