1855.] 



ON PEAT AND OTHER VEGETABLE CHARCOAL AND SOME OF ITS USES. 



217 



accidentally to know, and which is much to the point, in reference to 

 the controversy concerning the management of the Smithsonian Insti- 

 tution. 



Smithson had already made his will, and left his fortune to the 

 Royal Society of London, when certain scientific papers were offered 

 to that learned body for publication. Notwithstanding his efforts to 

 have them published in their transactions, they were refused; upon 

 which he changed his will and made his bequest to the United States. 

 It would be easy to collect in London more minute information upon 

 this occurrence, and should it appear desirable, I think I could put the 

 committee in the way of learning all the circumstances. Nothing 

 seems to me to indicate more plainly what were the testator's views 

 respecting the best means of promoting science than this fact. 



I will not deny the great importance of libraries, and no one has felt 

 more keenly the want of an extensive scientific library than I have 

 since I have been in the United States ; but, after all, libraries are 

 only tools of a secondary value to those who are really endowed by 

 nature with the power of making original researches, and thus increas- 

 ing knowledge among men. And though the absence or deficiency of 

 libraries is nowhere so deeply felt as in America, the application of 

 the funds of the Smithsonian Institution to the formation of a library, 

 beyond the requirements of the daily progress of science, would only be, in 

 my humble opinion a perversion of the real object of the trust, inas- 

 much as it would tend to secure facilities only to the comparatively 

 small number of American students who may have the time and means 

 to visit Washington when they wish to consult a library. Such an ap- 

 plication of the funds would in fact lessen the ability of the Smithso- 

 nian Institution to accomplish its great object, (which is declared by 

 its founder to be the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,) 

 to the fall extent to which they may be spent towards increasing un- 

 duly the library. 



JNIoreover, American students have a just claim upon their own 

 country for such local facilities as the accumulation of books affords. 



If I am allowed, in conclusion, to state my personal impression 

 respecting the management of the Institution thus far, I would only 

 express my concurrence with the plan of active operations adopted by 

 the regents, which has led to the publication of a series of volumes, 

 equal in scientific value to any prodnction of the same kind issued by 

 learned societies anywhere. 



The distribution of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge has 

 already carried the name of the Institution to all parts of the civilized 

 world, and conveyed with them such evidence of the intellectual acti- 

 vity of America as challenges everywhere admiration : a result which 

 could hardly be obtained by applying the resoui-ces of the Institution 

 to other purposes. 



On Peat and otUcr Vecetablc Cliavcoal and some of its Uscs- 



BY WILLIAM LCNGMAID.' 



The subject to which I propose to direct your attention this evening 

 is Charcoal, and some of its uses. The materials forming the earth's 

 surface have been described by geologists and chemists, as consisting 

 of comparatively a few simple substances ; and their distribution and 

 uses instructively and beautifnlly illustrate the power, the wisdom, and 

 the goodness of the Almighty Creator, and furnish unlimited evidence 

 of design. 



Of undecomposed substances, probably there is no one that plays 

 more important and varied parts than carbon ; if we contemplate the 

 diamond, that beautifies the diadem of royalty, the still more beautiful 

 electric light, or the vast deposits of coal, so extensively distributed in 

 this favoured island, carbon must be regarded as an agent of primary 

 importance. 



If we extend our researches to organic beings, we find that with the 

 exception of the framework of animals and the shells of Crustacea, 

 carbon forms a moiety of the solid materials of all organic beings, 

 whether animal or vegetable ; the beautiful flowers and foliage that 

 adorn the earth, the colours that deck the plumage of the feathered 

 tribes, no less tlian the tints that clothe the inhabitants of the tseming 

 oceans and rivers, the fragrant perfumes wafted on the gentle breeze, 

 all owe their existence in part to carbon ; nay, even some of the solid 



* Journal Society of Arts. 



rocks that form the framework of the great globe itself, are compounded 

 in part of this substance. 



However varied in form, and widely-diff'used carbon may be in nature, 

 in its countless combinations it is no less useful, in the arts, sciences, 

 and manufactures ; indeed, we trace its effects everywhere, in fact, if 

 carbon were to be withdrawn from the earth, organic existence would 

 cease, and the physical condition of the earth itself would be changed. 



It may not be amiss, then, to devote a few minutes this evening to 

 the consideration of carbon, in some of its forms and uses, as it is found 

 in the arts and manufactures, particularly under the term vegetable 

 charcoal, the produce of wood and peat. 



Charcoal produced from vegetable matter is carbon isolated from the 

 constituents of water, with which it is always combined in organic 

 substances ; there are several methods ordinarily employed for this 

 purpose ; one in considerable use, is most rude, and no doubt of great 

 antiquity ; it consists in digging a pit in the earth, and piling up pieces 

 of wood or peat in large heaps, which are covered with clods of earth 

 in such a manner that the pile may be ignited at the base ; when the 

 fire is well kindled, more clods are placed over the pile, in order to 

 prevent the too free access of atmospheric air, and which is eventually 

 excluded ; the heap is allowed to stand from one to five or six weeks, 

 the length of time depending on the size of the operation. Another 

 method is much practised in some parts of the Continent, and consists 

 of a furnace somewhat in the form of a kiln, with apparatus to exclude 

 the air ; it is filled with the material ignited at the base, and the opera- 

 tion proceeds much in the same manner as before described. Modern 

 science has provided a more perfect operation in destructive distillation 

 in retorts, whereby the volatile products are condensed and are of great 

 practical utility. 



In the first method I have described, about 181bs. of charcoal are 

 obtained from every lOOlbs of dry wood ; this is considered a fair yield ; 

 the other products are mostly lost. In the second method more tar 

 and pitch are obtained with the same quantity of charcoal. But by the 

 more elaborate process of distillation, naphtha, acetic acid, ammonia, 

 and other matters are obtained, together with about 20 to 25 lbs. of 

 charcoal for every hundred pounds of wood. 



There is yet a more recent process for the manufacture of vegetable 

 charcoal, for which, jointly with my son, I have obtained letters patent ; 

 this process consists in steeping vegetable matter in dilute sulphuric 

 acid, and drying it at a low temperature, whereby we obtain from 401bs. 

 to 6-51bs. of charcoal for every lOOlbs. of dry material submitted to the 

 operation. 



I presume the experiment I am about to make vrith sulphuric acid 

 and sugar, has been exhibited in every lecture room in the United 

 Kingdom ; this demonstrates the principle of the new mode of manu- 

 facturing charcoal, the sulphuric acid has a greater afiinity for the 

 elements of water than carbon, and the latter is isolated. 'iVe have 

 found that every description of vegetable matter to which we have 

 applied this mode of treatment, has exhibited the same phenomena. 



The chemical action that takes place is well understood, and presents 

 no novelty ; but the application of this principle to useful purposes, on 

 alarge scale, I believe has not before been accomplished ; this experiment 

 will demonstrate the nature of the process ; this is sawdust of pine timber 

 and has been steeped in sulphuric acid of the strength of 3 degi-ees of 

 Twaddles hydrometer. I will now place it on this plate, and apply a 

 lamp underneath — we shall soon see the result. 



Perhaps it is impossible to over-estimate the importftncc of charcoal. 

 England is possessed of vast deposits of mineral coal, which enables 

 our manufacturers to produce iron at a cost that bids defiance to all 

 competition. The deposits of coal and iron-stone may be regarded as 

 the foundation of all our greatness as a nation, but whilst the iron is 

 produced in quantities of which the mind can scarcely conceive an 

 adequate idea, and whilst it is of a quality fitted for an endless variety 

 of purposes, for which strength and cheapness are the prime qualifica- 

 tions, it is totally unfit for the manufacture of steel. This circumstance 

 renders this country dependent on foreign countries, chiefly Russia 

 and Sweden, for iron of superior quality. The sole cause of the supe- 

 riority of foreign iron, is the fact that charcoal is the fuel employed 

 for smelting the ore. 



The coke used by the British smelter contains a sensitive amount of 

 sulphur, chiefly in combination with iron, and exists in the coal in the 

 form of iron pyrites; it is found practically impossible, in the great 

 operations of ii-on smelting, to separate it at a cost that would render 

 it practicable. 



On the other hand, charcoal is all but absolutely free from sulphur, 

 and it exists in vegetable matter in the condition of sulphuric acid, 

 and combined with alkali, thus forming a neutral salt, which combine^ 



