LOFTUS — TURKO-PERSIAN FRONTIER. 2G9 



locality in Asia Minor marls may be found conformable to the sand- 

 stones*. 



The arrangement of the gypsum-series of the Z/igros agrees, how- 

 ever, with that of the newer tertiary beds of the Hala Range, and 

 the formations of Scinde, as described by Captain Vicaryf. 



Bituminous Products. — Before quitting the subject of the gypsum- 

 formation, it is necessary to say a few words on the bitumen- and 

 naphtha-springs which abound in its lowest deposits in connection 

 with the associated marls and gypsum. Instances occur in which 

 bitumen-springs rise from the numnmlitic limestone, but these are 

 exceedingly rare. The spring in the Citadel on the summit of the 

 Rock of Van in Armenia may be adduced as an example. 



As a general rule, however, where bituminous products appear in 

 Mesopotamia or in the Persian Zagros, we may be assured that they 

 rise from the gypsum-deposits. The most remarkable and well-known 

 instances of this fact are those of Hit, on the Lower Euphrates, — of 

 Kerkiik, on the Hamrine, — of Hamam A'li, on the Tigris, near 

 Nimriid, — of Hamam A'li, near Zohab, — those near Mendali, — and 

 further south, near Ram Hormuzd. The only bitumen-springs which 

 I had an opportunity of closely examining were in the Bakhtiyari 

 Mountains, between the curious and ancient temple called Mesjid i 

 Suleiman and the Mountain of Asmari ; these probably are the most 

 copious of any. They are situated in a wild and barren region of 

 much-contorted and highly elevated ridges of sandstones, marls, and 

 gypsum. Their immediate source is in a narrow ravine between lofty 

 walls of the earthy and cavernous variety of the last-named rock, 

 having the strata dipping in every possible direction, and furnishing 

 abundance of sulphur, which is sold in the bazaars of Dizfiil. A 

 small stream of cold water rises high up the ravine, and is increased 

 as it descends by streamlets from a multitude of sources, most of 

 which furnish a supply of liquid black bitumen and white naphtha, 

 mixed together, — some of them very abundantly. One spring yields 

 yellow naphtha alone. These oily substances float upon the surface 

 of the stream, and are conveyed to an artificial dam. When the dam 

 is nearly full, the water is drawn off at the bottom, and the bituminous 

 mixture is left exposed to the heat of the sun, until reduced to the 

 consistency of soft mud. It is then placed in a large caldron, covered 

 over, and submitted to a slight heat by heaping fire on the lid. After 

 a gentle simmering for a short time, the fire is removed ; and the 

 substance, when cold, is bitumen prepared for use. The Seyids (or 

 descendants of Mahomed) at Shuster enjoy the sole right and privilege 

 of making bitumen here. 



The black slime floating on the surface, or settling on the white 

 gypsum banks and detached blocks, produces a curious and striking 

 contrast. The water contains a great quantity of sulphur in solution, 

 which is deposited along the bed of the stream, and is collected. 

 The stench of sulphur in the ravine is almost unbearable. From 

 these springs are collected annually about 2000 mauns (or 12,000 lbs. 



* See previous note. — Ed. 



t See Quart. Jouru. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. p. 331, &c. 



