﻿The Structure of Euro'pe. 245 



systems of folds have been formed, including the Alps, 

 the Jura, the Apennines, the Atlas, Southern Spain, the 

 Pyrenees, etc. This region of flexing belongs to the 

 Tertiary formation. Subsidence has begun and continues. 

 The greater part of the phenomenon known as earth- 

 quakes is nothing more than the continuation of the 

 working of these inner forces which have produced the 

 relief, or, more correctly stated, have produced the 

 foundations of the relief ; for the surface forms of to-day 

 have in their details been worked out essentially by the 

 forces active at the surface of the earth : wind and 

 weather, water and ice. 



In the whole treatment I have not spoken of the 

 eastern part of Europe. There is seen a phenomenon 

 quite foreign to western Europe. To the north, near St. 

 Petersburg, in north Kussia, in southern Sweden, every- 

 thing lies horizontally. In the course of geologic periods 

 no important change has here taken place ; even the 

 Cambrian strata lie horizontal. The surroundings of the 

 Baltic have been entirely uninfluenced by the movements 

 above mentioned, and have remained undisturbed. The 

 Archaean rocks which lie under these are folded ; this, 

 however, can be seen in only a few places : for instance, 

 on the little peninsula in the north-western part of Lake 

 Ladoga. These show a folding of the rocks which is 

 older than the Cambrian time, and older than all the 

 other phenomena with which we have been here dealing. 



Very remarkable is the following fact : In eastern 

 Galicia, on the upper Dniester, the river cuts very deep 

 into the land, and there is seen a horizontally bedded 

 series of rocks, which is no other than the continuation of 

 the rocks of Livland, Esthland, St. Petersburg, which lie 

 hidden under the whole plain, and which here again 

 become visible, and are completely undisturbed as com- 

 pared with the overturned Carpathians. In what way 

 these two so different districts can approach one another 



