SCOPE AND VALUE OF ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS 
83 
ing the body, and so impairing tlie mind ; of failure in all things, 
not only of food, fuel, clothing, and shelter, for Arctic service 
foreshadows such contingencies, but the bitter failure of plans 
and aspirations, which brings almost inevitable despair in its 
train. 
Failure of all things, did I say ? Nay ; failure, be it admitted, 
of all the ph}^sical accessories of conceived and accomplished 
action, hut not failure in the higher and more essential attri- 
butes — not of the mental and moral qualities that are the foun- 
dation of fortitude, fidelity, and honor. Failure in this latter 
respect has been so rare in Arctic service as to justly make such 
offender a byword and scorn to his fellow-laborers and suc- 
cessors. 
Patience, courage, fortitude, foresight, self-reliance, helpful- 
ness — these grand characteristics of developed humanity every- 
where, but which we are inclined to claim as special endowments 
of the Caucasian race — find ample expression in the detailed 
history of Arctic exploration. If one seeks to learn to what ex- 
tent man’s determination and effort dominate even the most 
adverse environment, the simple narratives of Arctic exploration 
will not fail to furnish striking examples. 
There is a ^\it^espread impression that all Arctic voyages have 
been made for practically the same general purpose, whereas 
polar research has passed through three distinctive phases : First, 
for strictly commercial purposes in connection with trade to the 
Indies ; second, for advancement of geographical knowledge, 
and, third, for scientific investigations connected with physical 
sciences. 
Commercial interests dictated the grand series of vo}^ages 
wherein England, competing with Spain from the period of the 
ventures of the Cabots to the discoveries of Baffin, sought for a 
short route to the Indies across the pole or by a northwest pas- 
sage. As the futility of efforts by these routes became more or 
less aj>parent, and as the naval strength of Spain and Portugal 
ensured their continued monopoly of the growing and valuable 
trade of the Orient, the attention of England was turned in sheer 
desperation to the northeast ])assage as possibly offering a com- 
]>eting route. While this quest j)roved impracticable for the 
sailing ships of the sixteenth century, yet its prosecution inured 
to the great financial advantage of England through the estah- 
