RUSSIA IN EUROPE 
15 
with loose reindeer skins, secured by thongs of seal and walrus 
hide; within are small compartments, the whole warmed by a 
fire in the center of the tent and a seal-oil lamp in each com- 
partment. They own herds of reindeer, which alone make 
the region habitable. In summer they move frequently for 
food to fresh pastures of green moss, on which the reindeer 
feed, and on them the wild men of the country live, eating their 
food without cooking. In the winter they draw near the shore 
and live on seal and cod. They hunt the squirrel and fox and 
sell their skins to the Russians, and thus purchase a few of the 
necessaries of life. Their only arms are the bow and arrow. The 
Samoyeds are believed by some to be Finns, who, forced far 
into the Arctic -region, have degenerated and lost most of the 
peculiar habits of the Finns. 
South of the agricultural zone we come to a third civilization, 
to another and different life, in the lands of the southwest 
and in the saline steppes in the southeast. These were inhab- 
ited by Cossacks, Tartars, Bashkirs, Kalmucks, and other no- 
madic tribes, who wandered over the steppes to find pasture 
for their cattle. 
Among these tribes one hundred years ago Catherine II 
planted colonies of Germans to cultivate the land, establish set- 
tlements, intermingle and intermarry with the people, and in- 
troduce agriculture, thrift, and habits of industry. This experi- 
ment failed, for the Germans have lived almost entirely among 
themselves, and, while acquiring many of the bad habits of the 
people, have done little toward improving them. Since the law 
compelled the Cossacks and Tartars to live in fixed habitations 
many have migrated intoTurania, Armenia, and Turkey in Asia, 
while from Armenia and Turkey Armenians, Greeks, Druses, and 
other Christians have come and.'built flourishing towns and cities 
on the Black and Aral seas and river Volga. These new settlers 
are the most industrious and prosperous of the Russians, and 
immigration will continue as long as these countries are under 
Mohammedan rule. Before the emancipation of the serf, in 
1861 , the ])atriarchal system prevailed, under which each family 
was its ))roducerand consumer. Since then manufactures have 
rapidly increased and have nearly doubled the last twelve years. 
The mining interest has also increased with like rapidity ; the 
annual production of the mines is $ 67 , 000 , 000 . 
The mercantile or trading class and the manufacturers, usually 
