74 J'fiAfTKAL EXKIKISES IX flEOfiJiM'HY 



and southing of the sun (or its movement in decliniition, declination 

 in the sk}' being the equivalent of geocentric * latitude on the earth). 

 The fact of seasonal change having been already recorded in a most 

 elementary way, let a second record be made in connection with a 

 search for the causes of change, as follows : At intervals of a fortnight 

 or a month determine the midday altitude of the sun. At similar 

 intervals determine the time, and if possil)le the compass direc- 

 tion, of sunrise and sunset.t Again, at similar intervals, have the 

 scholars, or at least the brighter ones, note the star groups that ap- 

 pear in the east shortly after the time and o])posite to the point of 

 sunset. All the facts thus determined vary systematically and in cor- 

 relation with one another. The discovery of their system of change 

 and of the correlations in the system should, if ])0ssible, be reserved 

 for the scholars. Their intelligence is only half developed if the dis- 

 coveries that they can make are made for them. In such case it ma}' 

 be claimed that time is saved, and that the results reached arethesame ; 

 but it should be seen, on the other hand, that the scholars lose much 

 appreciation of the result if they do not find it for themselves, and 

 that they will fail entirely to acquire the power and the habit of dis- 

 covering if the}' have no practice in it. If American schools are de- 

 veloped on a trul}' democratic basis, as l)efits republican institutions, 

 one of their chief values will be that they aid in giving every boy and 



♦This woni, " xeor-entrif," is inserted lierp in order to escape the criticism of the carping 

 and captious. In oral explanation with teachers or schohirs I should omit it and accept the 

 consequence-;. In printed statement it is necessary to )ie more circumspect. If any member 

 of a i-lass should rise hy hi.s own exertions to an understitmling of the ditterence between geo- 

 graphie and geocentric latitude, he would deserve and appreciate the fuller explanation.* that 

 could >ie given in response to his questions : but to introduce into a first statement so fine a 

 point as is implied in tlie use of geoeentrii- would unuece.«s:irily and unwisely delay and com- 

 plicate progress. 



t It is manifest that this requires observations outside of the school session and sometimes 

 at rather inconvenient hours. But I would protest against the implication contained in objee- 

 tions to outside work, that lessons are so distasteful that none of the scholars will willingly 

 give a little of their free time to sm-li details as are here suggested. Early siitnmer sunrise 

 can be timed from sunset when it has been discovered <luring the winter that sunrise and 

 sunset occur symmetrically before ami after midday, or the moment when the sun reaches 

 its highest altitude (meriilian culmination), Thi- general a<loption of standard time introduces 

 some confusion here, for it is desirable that sunrise and sunset should be recorded in local 

 solar time, A watch kept to such time by observations of the sun at midday is useful in this 

 connection. This is easily done when a north mark ha.« once been estaljlished. The watch 

 will then give the necessary correction for the steeple clocks and factory whistles, by which 

 some scholars may have to make their tnorning ami evening records. 



A pocket compass for measuring the direction of sunrise and sunset may lie lent to those 

 scholars whose homes give the best view of the horizon. Compass readings should be cor- 

 rected for local variation of the needle to give true bearings. The tlirection of early sunrise 

 may be determined from that of late sunset when it has been discovered that the two are sym- 

 metri<-al with respect to the true m<-riilian. 



