﻿278 
  SOUTH 
  AMERICAN 
  INDIANS 
  [B. 
  A. 
  E. 
  Bull. 
  143 
  

  

  with 
  paint, 
  were 
  usually 
  carried 
  on 
  spears. 
  A 
  large 
  army 
  usually 
  

   carried 
  one 
  or 
  more 
  sacred 
  objects 
  to 
  watch 
  over 
  its 
  fortunes. 
  The 
  

   Inca 
  armies 
  usually 
  carried 
  the 
  stone 
  that 
  represented 
  Manco 
  Capac, 
  

   or 
  his 
  "brother," 
  the 
  stone 
  of 
  Huanacauri 
  (Cobo, 
  1890-95, 
  bk. 
  14, 
  

   ch. 
  9; 
  Morua, 
  1922-25, 
  bk. 
  3, 
  ch. 
  6). 
  

  

  Training 
  and 
  tactics. 
  — 
  All 
  able-bodied 
  taxpayers 
  were 
  liable 
  to 
  

   military 
  service, 
  and 
  were 
  trained 
  in 
  the 
  use 
  of 
  arms 
  from 
  boyhood 
  

   (Las 
  Casas, 
  1892, 
  ch. 
  5). 
  The 
  only 
  standing 
  army 
  seems 
  to 
  have 
  been 
  

   the 
  Emperor's 
  bodyguard 
  of 
  "big 
  ears"; 
  the 
  rest 
  of 
  any 
  military 
  force 
  

   was 
  made 
  up 
  of 
  men 
  called 
  up 
  for 
  the 
  regular 
  labor 
  tax, 
  and 
  divided 
  

   into 
  squadrons 
  by 
  provinces. 
  The 
  officers 
  were 
  graded 
  according 
  to 
  

   the 
  same 
  decimal 
  classification 
  used 
  in 
  the 
  civil 
  administration, 
  and 
  

   were 
  probably 
  in 
  large 
  part 
  the 
  same 
  men 
  (Cieza, 
  1880, 
  bk. 
  2, 
  ch. 
  23; 
  

   Cobo, 
  1890-95, 
  bk. 
  14, 
  ch. 
  9). 
  

  

  The 
  Inca 
  army 
  marched 
  in 
  regular 
  ranks, 
  under 
  strict 
  discipline. 
  

   No 
  soldier 
  was 
  allowed 
  to 
  stray 
  from 
  the 
  road, 
  steal 
  food, 
  or 
  molest 
  

   civilians, 
  under 
  pain 
  of 
  death 
  (Cobo, 
  1890-95, 
  bk. 
  12, 
  chs. 
  26, 
  31; 
  

   Molina 
  of 
  Santiago, 
  1916, 
  p. 
  130). 
  Atahuallpa 
  punished 
  some 
  of 
  

   his 
  bodyguard 
  with 
  death 
  for 
  breaking 
  ranks 
  when 
  frightened 
  by 
  

   a 
  Spanish 
  horse 
  during 
  an 
  official 
  visit 
  (Anonymous 
  Conqueror, 
  1929, 
  

   f. 
  3). 
  Comparable 
  discipline 
  does 
  not 
  seem 
  to 
  have 
  been 
  enforced 
  

   in 
  the 
  heat 
  of 
  battle, 
  however. 
  Once 
  engaged, 
  the 
  troops 
  broke 
  ranks 
  

   and 
  fought 
  individually, 
  depending 
  on 
  numbers 
  and 
  personal 
  prowess. 
  

   This 
  lack 
  of 
  discipline 
  in 
  battle 
  meant 
  that 
  the 
  large 
  Inca 
  armies 
  

   lacked 
  an 
  advantage 
  proportionate 
  to 
  their 
  numbers, 
  for 
  they 
  could 
  

   not 
  be 
  adequately 
  controlled 
  by 
  their 
  commanders. 
  The 
  conflict 
  was 
  

   accompanied 
  by 
  boasting 
  and 
  shouting. 
  

  

  In 
  attack, 
  the 
  slingers 
  began 
  the 
  engagement 
  at 
  long 
  range. 
  The 
  

   bowmen 
  held 
  their 
  fire 
  until 
  closer 
  to 
  the 
  enemy, 
  and 
  the 
  hand-to- 
  

   hand 
  fighters 
  were 
  the 
  last 
  to 
  be 
  engaged 
  (Las 
  Casas, 
  1892, 
  ch. 
  5). 
  

   Most 
  soldiers 
  used 
  only 
  one 
  offensive 
  weapon, 
  but 
  a 
  man 
  might 
  wield 
  

   a 
  thrusting 
  spear 
  and 
  one 
  of 
  the 
  clubbing 
  weapons. 
  Men 
  armed 
  with 
  

   the 
  macana 
  (maoana) 
  carried 
  no 
  shield, 
  keeping 
  both 
  hands 
  free 
  to 
  

   handle 
  the 
  heavy 
  sword-club 
  (Cobo, 
  1890-95, 
  bk. 
  14, 
  ch. 
  9; 
  Poma, 
  

   1936, 
  pp. 
  151, 
  157, 
  161, 
  165, 
  169, 
  171, 
  194). 
  

  

  Most 
  military 
  operations 
  were 
  either 
  pitched 
  battles, 
  in 
  which 
  Inca 
  

   troops 
  had 
  superior 
  numbers, 
  or 
  fights 
  for 
  fortified 
  hilltops. 
  Valley 
  

   towns 
  were 
  never 
  fortified 
  and 
  rarely 
  defended. 
  The 
  inhabitants 
  

   usually 
  retired 
  when 
  attacked 
  to 
  a 
  refuge 
  (pokaea), 
  ingeniously 
  

   chosen 
  and 
  fortified, 
  on 
  the 
  top 
  of 
  some 
  nearby 
  hill. 
  The 
  slopes 
  were 
  

   terraced 
  to 
  increase 
  their 
  steepness, 
  multiple 
  walls 
  with 
  staggered 
  

   gates 
  were 
  built 
  to 
  defend 
  the 
  easiest 
  access, 
  and 
  the 
  walls 
  had 
  salients 
  

   from 
  which 
  defending 
  slingers 
  could 
  strike 
  the 
  backs 
  of 
  any 
  scaling 
  

   party. 
  The 
  Inca's 
  masterpiece 
  of 
  fortification 
  was 
  the 
  Sacsahuaman 
  

   (Saqsawama:R) 
  fortress 
  overlooking 
  Cuzco, 
  which 
  was 
  begun 
  by 
  

  

  