430 UNGULATA 
up from the bottom of the sea by the fishermen who ply their 
trade in the German Ocean, having been washed out of the water- 
worn cliffs of the eastern counties of England. In Scotland and 
Ireland its remains are less abundant, but they have been found in 
vast numbers at various localities throughout the greater part of 
Central Europe (as far south as Santander in Spain and Rome), 
Northern Asia, and the northern part of the American continent, 
though the exact distribution of the Mammoth in the New World 
is still a question of debate. It has not hitherto been met with in 
any part of Scandinavia or Finland. 
In point of time, the Mammoth belongs exclusively to the 
Pleistocene epoch, and it was undoubtedly contemporaneous with 
man in France, and probably elsewhere. There is evidence to show 
that it existed in Britain before, during, and after the glacial period. 
As before indicated, it is in the northern part of Siberia that 
its remains have been found in the greatest abundance, and in 
quite exceptional conditions of preservation. For a very long 
period there has been from that region a regular export of 
Mammoth ivory in a state fit for commercial purposes, both east- 
ward to China and westward to Europe. In the middle of the tenth 
century an active trade was carried on at Khiva in fossil ivory, 
which was fashioned into combs, vases, and other objects, as related 
by Abu ’l Kasim, an Arab writer of that period. Middendorff 
reckoned that the number of tusks which have yearly come into 
the market during the last two centuries has been at least a hundred 
pairs, and Nordenskiéld, from personal observation, considers this 
calculation as probably rather too low than too high. They are 
found at all suitable places along the whole line of the shore 
between the mouth of the Obi and Behring Straits, and the farther 
north the more numerous do they become, the islands of New 
Siberia being now one of the most favourite collecting localities. 
The soil of Bear Island and of Liachoff Islands is said to consist only 
of sand and ice with such quantities of Mammoth bones as almost 
to compose its chief substance. The remains are not only found 
around the mouths of the great rivers, as would be the case if the 
carcases had been washed down from more southern localities in 
the interior of the continent, but are imbedded in the frozen soil 
in such circumstances as to indicate that the animals had lived not 
far from the localities in which they are now found, and they are 
exposed either by the melting of the ice in unusually warm 
summers or by the washing away of the sea cliffs or river banks 
by storms or floods. In this way the bodies of more or less nearly 
perfect animals, often standing in the erect position, with the soft 
parts and hairy covering entire, have been brought to light. 
References to the principal recorded discoveries of this kind, 
and to the numerous speculations to which they have given rise, 
