of the high forest type. Oak and beech are the 
important species. 
Along with the conversion, and distinct from 
the “reproduction cuttings,” goes a systematic 
series of thinnings, made with the object of 
keeping the stand always at its maximum of 
development as to both quantity and quality. 
It is here that American foresters can profitably 
study French methods, for when it becomes 
economically possible in our country systematic- 
ally to conduct thinnings, we can well use the 
procedure of France as a guide. 
There are broadly two general ways of mak- 
ing thinnings. One, supposedly more favored 
in Germany, is to remove the smaller sized 
trees that fall into the classes termed by for- 
esters “suppressed,” “intermediate” and “co- 
dominant.” This method regards the forest from 
below, as it were, and theoretically at any rate 
removes in systematic order the individuals of 
the classes named. It is called in French 
all sorts of local modifications to the Frenca 
as there are to the German method. 
In speaking of the application of the French 
method of making thinnings in the forests of 
the United States it is of course to be under- 
stood that such work would be strictly limited 
by local economic conditions. In France, as 
eisewhere in Europe, the relatively small area 
of the country and the dense population in the 
proximity of the forests, make for ready mar- 
kets for almost all classes and sizes of wood. 
This in turn leads to permanent roads, the divi- 
sion of the forest into small compartments, the 
ability to remove at a profit even a few trees 
from a given locality, and the like. Few for- 
ests in the United States as yet have approached 
to anything like what in France is the normal 
condition. But from the very fact that it is 
easier to simplify than to build up, the methods 
used under the intensive treatment possible in 
France are of interest to us. 
NATURAL 
REPROPUCTION 
IN THE 
SILVER FIR 
FOREST IN 
THE VOSGES 
MOUNTAINS 
—NOTE 
GROUPS 
OF YOUNG 
GROWTH 
“éclaircie par la bas.” As a matter of fact, 
however, it is to be noted that nowhere do 
European foresters confine themselves to the 
exact rules as set forth in the text books. In- 
dividual judsment and initiative and the de- 
mands for modification made by windfall or 
other unforeseen accidents alter the most the- 
oretically perfect program. 
The other method, the characteristically 
French method, is to regard the forest from 
above. They thin the top story in order to de- 
crease competition between the best trees. In 
other words, the French foresters try to pick 
the winners among the trees in the stand what- 
ever may be their size or age, and so to con- 
duct the thinnings as to favor these individuals 
as against their competitors. The trees that 
are most promising are therefore chosen early 
in their life definitely to form the final crop. 
In French this method of thinning is known as 
“éclaircie par le haut.” In general, and par- 
ticularly for broadleaf forests, it commends it- 
self to an American more than does the other 
system. It goes without saying that there are 
A corollary of the nearby markets for all for- 
est products in France is the extent to which 
forest sanitation, or the removal of diseased 
trees, can there be practiced. If an individual 
tree shows signs of being unhealthy it is at 
once marked for removal and is usually cut 
Within a few months’ time. There is said to be 
relatively little injury from insects in the 
French forests, but here again, trees that are 
found to have been attacked are at once re- 
moved and all slash burned. 
THE WAR AND 
THE FORESTS 
But of injuries due to human agencies the 
forests of northern and eastern France are all 
too full. It was providential for France that 
she had so much forest area near her frontier. 
All up and down the battle line the forests 
played a most important part throughout the 
war. When one stands by the graves of the 
men who died fighting in these woods he is not 
concerned for the loss of the trees. They too 
(48) 
