THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 189 



are caused, in part, by the vibrations of the wings ; but 

 the true voice of these Insects comes from the spiracles 

 of the thorax. 



Snakes and Lizards have no vocal cords, and can only 

 hiss. Frogs croak'" and Crocodiles roar, and the huge 

 Tortoise of the Galapagos Islands utters a hoarse, bellow- 

 ing noise. 



The vocal apparatus in Birds is situated at the lower 

 end of the trachea, where it divides into the two bron- 

 chi."" It consists mainly of a bony drum, with a cross- 

 bone, having a vertical membrane attached to its upper 

 edge. The membrane is put in motion by currents of air 

 passing on either side of it. Five pairs of muscles (in the 

 Songsters) adjust the length of the windpipe to the pitch 

 of the glottis. The various notes are produced by differ- 

 ences in the blast of air, as well as by changes in the ten- 

 sion of the membrane. The range of notes is commonly 

 within an octave. Birds of the same family have a simi- 

 lar voice. All the Parrots have a harsh utterance ; Geese 

 and Ducks quack ; Crows, Magpies, and Jays caw ; while 

 the Warblers differ in the quality, rather than the kind, of 

 note.'" The Parrot and Mocking-bird use the tongue in 

 imitating human sounds. Some species possess great com- 

 pass of voice. The Bell - bird can be heard nearly three 

 miles; and Livingstone said he could distinguish the voices 

 of the Ostrich and the Lion only by knowing that the for- 

 mer roars by day, and the latter by night. 



The vocal organ of Mammals, unlike that of Birds, is 

 in the upper part of the larynx. It consists of four car- 

 tilages, of which the largest (the thyroid?) produces the 

 prominence in the human throat known as "Adam's ap- 

 ple," and two elastic bands, called " vocal cords," just be- 

 low the glottis, or upper opening of the windpipe. Tlie 

 various tones are determined by the tension of these cords, 

 which is effected by the raising or lowering of the thyroid 



