COMPOSITION OF THE SKULL. 



397 



extreme modification in form. At first all limbs arise as 

 little pads, in which the skeletons subsequently develop, and 

 in early life the limbs of all Vertebrates above the fishes are 

 much alike, the mod- 

 ifications taking place 

 shortly before birth. Ac- 

 cording to Gegenbaur 

 and others, the limbs of 

 Vertebrates have been 

 probably derived from 

 the pectoral and ventral 

 fins of fishes in which 

 the fin-rays are irrela- 

 tively repeated. * 



In the fins of fishes 

 there is a simple system 

 of leverage ; in the limbs 



of higher air-breathing ^j^ ^gg _b^ aij„ii . ^^ vertelirae ; c, sacrum, 



Vorf oVirn tpa fnrmpd bv and «, its continuation (iii-ostyle) ;/, enprascap- 



V eiteuiauefe, loimeu uy ^j^. ^_ humerus; A, fore-arm bones; i, wrist 



Tvnli'i'no- rm bmrl a com- bones' (carpals and metacarpals); d, ilium; m, 



walking on lanu, a com ^^^.^j^ \{^^^^„) ■ „„ les bone (ulna) ; o, elongated 



■pound system of lever- first pair of ankle-bones (tarsals) ; ;), (/, foot 

 ■^ -^ bones or plialanges.— After Owen. 



age (Wyman). 



The head of all Vertebrates above the lancelet is supported 

 by a more or less perfect cartilaginous or bone framework, 

 the skull (cranium), or brain-box (Fig. 386). It is a contin- 

 uation of the vertebral column, and protects the brain, 

 besides forming the support of the jaws, tongue-bone 

 (hyoid bone), and branchial arches. The series of lateral 

 (visceral or branchial) arches varies, but there may be nine ; 

 the most anterior (if it be counted as the first one, Fig. 

 387, a, b, c) is formed by the labial cartilages {traleculm 

 cranii) ; next comes the mandibular arch (o, n), which is suc- 

 ceeded by the hyoid arch (II.) and the six branchial arches. 

 In the embryos of all Vertebrates these visceral arches are 



* A modified form of this theory is advocated hy Balfour and J. K. 

 Thatcher, who attempt to show that the limbs with their girdles were 

 derived from a series of similar simple parallel rays, and that they 

 were originally a specialization of the continuous lateral folds orfins of 

 embryo fishes, and probably homologous with the lateral folds of the 

 adult lancelet (Amphioxus). 



