Philosophy of Botany. 219 



of the Western church, until the violent stru^gfles of the refor- 

 mation admitted some rays of spiritual freedom, breaking 

 asunder the dark' clouds of intellectual subjueation, brighten- 

 ing once more and bringing to life the blasted fields. 



In a period when religious systems had lost all ethical sanc- 

 tioning, when all sciences and civil order had been drowned 

 in blood, when fratricide, poisoning, and assassination were 

 the regular methods and instruments of governments, hier- 

 archy and a faith without intellect must necessarily super- 

 vene, can even be beneficial to maintain some kind of cohesion 

 of society, until unforeseen events cooperate to bring about a 

 new era ; but if the hierarchical state becomes permanent, such 

 a system is sure to fall into degeneracy. 



The student of history turns over many a page with a shud- 

 der and a sigh. None are more painful and distressing than 

 the ones now passing before him, whep darkness is so com- 

 plete and general without the glimmer of one single star to 

 point out an opening or rent in the overcast clouds. 



History becomes then only interesting, instructing, and fas- 

 cinating when there is progress. To give a pleasing account 

 of the Byzantine, Turkish, or Chinese history would baffle or 

 distract the ingenuity of a .Thucydides. 



A wandering tribe of Asiatic nomads had adopted the faith 

 of Mohammed. A branch of them, the Seldshuk Turks, had, a 

 century ago, overthrown the Persian Empire. After this they 

 defeated the Greeks and drove them out of Asia Minor. After 

 those successes they designed the conquest of the Byzantine 

 Empire. Their Sultan, Soliman, had crossed the Hellespont, 

 captured and fortified Gallipoli, thus securing a foothold in 

 Europe, and a base for future operations. From this time on 

 the tottering empire lay in an agony. Its doom was apparent. 



The emperor, John Palaeologus, went to Rome, prostrated 

 himself at the feet of Urban V., the Roman pontiff, renounced 

 his heresy respecting the supremacy of the Roman pontiff and 

 the double procession of the Holy Ghost, and kissing the feet 

 of the Holy Father, besieged him for help. The successor of 

 Constantine the X^reat had given up his religion, but he re- 

 ceived no equivalent rev/ard. The pontificate had no power 



