EXECUTIVE ORGANIZATION 207 
discharged a majority of its employees, and put 
in raw talent? In ordinary manufacturing or 
commercial business those at the head are selected 
from those who have spent years in working up 
from the bottom of the ladder. The head positions 
are rightly regarded as the important ones. In 
American governments it is the custom to appoint 
men to the responsible positions who have never 
had any experience in the government. For a 
time even the subordinates who are retained are 
demoralized, and work is paralyzed. Before those 
in the higher positions have really learned their 
work they give place to others, and the process 
of adjustment begins again. With such a system 
efficiency is a practical impossibility.! 
166. Executive Boards. Another serious draw- 
back to efficiency is found in the existence of ex- 
ecutive boards. Absolutely nothing can be said 
in defense of the idea. Executives have no legis- 
lative authority. It is the business of executives 
to act, and to administer the laws as found. A 
board is very different from an executive council, 
in which the chief calls his subordinates together 
for an interchange of ideas, and to harmonize the 
work in different portions of the department. Sucli 
councils are often necessary for purpose of efficient 
orientation as to conditions. A board is composed 
of members equal in authority and responsibility. 
It is true that for parliamentary practice they may 
elect a chairman or president, and a secretary to 
whom may be intrusted special duties and respon- 
sibilities; and they may have an executive, who 
1See Pusiic HEALTH, Chap- 
ter IV. 
