4 Animal Intelligence 
nature and, causation, is often far easier to study than that 
of adults. ' Again, much time was spent in argumentation 
-about the criteria of consciousness, that is, about what cer- 
tain common facts of behavior meant in reference to inner 
experience. The problems of inference about consciousness 
from behavior distracted attention from the problems of 
learning more about behavior itself. Finally, when psy- 
.Chologists began to observe and experiment upon animal 
behavior, they tended to overestimate the resulting insight 
into the stream of the animal’s thought and to neglect 
the direct facts about what he did and how he did it. 
Such observations and experiments are, however, them- 
selves a means of restoring a proper division of attention 
between consciousness and behavior. A psychologist 
may think of himself as chiefly a stream of consciousness. 
He may even think of other men as chiefly conscious 
selves whose histories they report by word and deed.’ But 
it is only by an extreme bigotry that he can think of a dog 
or cat as chiefly a stream or chain or series of consciousness 
or consciousnesses. One of the lower animals is so ob- 
viously a bundle of original and acquired connections be- 
tween situation and response that the student is led to 
attend to the whole series, — situation, response and con- 
nection or bond, — rather than to just the conscious state 
that may or may not be one of the features of the bond. 
It is so useful, in understanding the animal, to see what it 
does in different circumstances and what helps and what 
hinders its learning, that one is led to an intrinsic interest 
in varieties of behavior as well as in the kinds of conscious- 
ness of which they give evidence. 
What each open-minded student of animal psychology 
at first hand comes thus to feel vaguely, I propose in this 
essay to try to make definite and clear. The studies 
