The Study of Consciousness and Behavior 3 
exclusively with consciousness ‘as such’; Stanley Hall, 
with behavior; and James, with both. In England Stout, 
Galton and Lloyd Morgan have represented the same divi- 
sion and union of interests. 
On the whole, the psychological work of the last quarter 
of the nineteenth century emphasized the study of conscious- 
ness to the neglect of the total life of intellect and character. 
There was a tendency to an unwise, if not bigoted, attempt 
to make the science of human nature synonymous with the 
science of facts revealed by introspection. It was, for 
example, pretended that the only value of all the measure- 
ments of reaction-times was as a means to insight into the 
reaction-consciousness, — that the measurements of the 
amount of objective difference in the length, brightness or 
weight of two objects that men could judge with an assigned 
degree of correctness were of value only so far as they 
allowed one to infer something about the difference between 
two corresponding consciousnesses. It was affirmed that 
experimental methods were not to aid the experimenter to 
know what the subject did, but to aid the subject to know 
what he experienced. 
The restriction of studies of human intellect and character ° 
to studies of conscious states was not without influence on 
scientific studies of animal psychology. For one thing, it . 
probably delayed them. So long as introspection was 
lauded as the chief method of psychology, a psychologist 
would tend to expect too little from mere studies, from the 
outside, of creatures who could not report their inner expe- 
riences to him in the manner to which he was accustomed. 
In the literature of the time will be found many comments 
on the extreme difficulty of studying the psychology of 
animals and children. But difficulty exists only in the 
case of their consciousness. Their behavior, by its simpler 
