188 THE PRINCII'LES OF HANDLING WOOULANi:)S 



ginning to allow for loss through accident and for thin- 

 nings. 



When a cutting is made, the spaces formerly occupied 

 by the old standards are filled with seedlings by planting. 

 The younger standards are inspected carefully, and thin- 

 nings are made when desirable, so as to benefit the best 

 standards and to maintain the area occupied hv each age- 

 class at about the normal. 



The species used as standards are those which have a 

 relatively light foliage, such as oak and ash. The under- 

 wood is best composed of comparatively tolerant species, 

 such as (in Europe) alder, hornbeam, beech, elm, and 

 maple. 



The standards are crowded from the side onl\- during 

 the life of the sprouts, and consequently have only a 

 comparatively short stem cleared of branches. Since 

 they stand isolated for most of their life, the\- develop 

 broad, spreading crowns. The diameter growth is at a 

 maximum, and they produce one or two very large logs. 



