MAN 471 



takes his first steps in actual learning very much as the lower 

 animals do. He is stimulated and he acts somewhat at random 

 in a new situation. If satisfaction follows the action, it is 

 repeated. If dissatisfaction follows, some other action is tried. 

 Finally he hits upon a suitable action. This is the trial and error 

 method of learning. 



In man, as in the higher mammals, we can modify or condi- 

 tion these inherited reflexes, impulses, tendencies, and instinctive 

 reaction patterns, by associating new stimuli and rewards with 

 them. For example, by ringing a bell always when savory food 

 is placed before a dog or a child, we can finally get the usual 

 reactions to food merely by ringing the bell. Or by following 

 up a normal response always by unpleasant results the instinc- 

 tive reaction can be changed or broken up altogether, and 

 another substituted. 



Man, however, working upon these internal feelings and the 

 results of his experiences, through the play of increasing memory 

 and imagination (consciousness) can compare not merely present 

 sensations and objects, but also past experiences and mental 

 states with those of the present. He can also consciously 

 anticipate future conditions on the basis of this and plan and 

 purpose to meet these in definite ways. By the power of lan- 

 guage he can the better deal with abstract ideas, which in con- 

 sciousness serve to replace concrete objects. In a word, he has 

 gained the power of abstract reasoning and of ignoring tem- 

 porarily the concrete things. He can say (or think), (i) This is 

 true; (2) this is true; and (3) therefore, this is true. Starting 

 from experience, he can thus reach conclusions quite beyond the 

 power of experience to convey. These conclusions may of 

 course be true or false; but there can be no doubt that they 

 have greatly influenced and enriched human life. Through the 

 use of language, again, he can make understood by others not 

 merely concrete situations but even these entirely abstract 

 conclusions. In this way we can substitute teaching and train- 

 ing in some degree for personal experience on the part of new 

 generations. 



This aspect of zoology is known as Psychology and is most 

 important in all the progress we have made in discovery. 



