THE EUROPEAN VARIETIES OF HARDWOOD 81 
well, works satisfactorily, and has a pretty but small 
figure when the wood is quartered. It is durable 
under water or when kept dry, but not under varied 
conditions. Its uses are many, the first and foremost 
being for the manufacture of common chairs, and also 
for parts of the frames of better-class work. Being 
a hard, close-grained wood, it is largely used for turnery 
purposes, and is the material employed for what are 
known as wrest planks in the making of pianos. It is 
also largely used for the making of plane blocks and 
the handles of tools, besides an infinite number of other 
purposes which it is unnecessary to mention. The 
native supply is about equal to the demand, but imported 
wood from Germany, in the shape of sawn planks, is 
received in small parcels from time to time. 
Alder.—A small-low-growing tree, common through- 
out Europe. It is generally found in low-lying, swampy 
places, seldom exceeding 40 ft. in height and of small 
diameter. The wood is of whitish-brown colour, 
changing to a redder shade on exposure to the air. It has 
a very fine and even grain, and is exceedingly durable 
wheri employed in water, but will not stand in alternate 
positions. It is not greatly used and is of com- 
paratively little value, the chief uses being the making 
of clog soles, brush backs, and for turnery purposes. 
Hornbeam.—This tree is supposed to be indigenous 
to Great Britain. Like the foregoing, it is one that 
does not attain to a great size, and is moreover not 
abundant. The wood is yellowish-white in colour, fairly 
heavy, extremely hard and close grained, and exception- 
ally strong when subjected to vertical pressure. It is 
an admirable material for turnery purposes and the 
making of wooden screws. It is largely used by engineers 
for cog-wheels, and a fair amount is consumed for the 
making of parts in pianoforte actions, as well as by 
