EVIL AND ALTRUISM IN NATURE 307 



clusively by preying upon the bodies of other ani- 

 mals. 



Judging from this, it might be concluded that 

 " might makes right," or, rather, that there is no 

 principle of right in nature. 



As to suffering, it may be said that most animals 

 are not capable of suffering to any great extent. The 

 lowest forms have no nervous system, and a great mul- 

 titude of others have only a slightly developed ner- 

 vous system, so that sensation is dull, and acute pain 

 is impossible. 



It seems very probable that consciousness of pain 

 is confined to the higher forms of life, and only the 

 highest vertebrates, such as birds and mammals, have 

 great capacity for suffering. 



As already stated, the capacities for pleasure and 

 pain increase and decrease together. This being true, 

 man, by the greatness of his nature, far excels all ani- 

 mals in happiness and misery. 



If the life of the individual organism be considered 

 as a whole, on the average the amount of pleasure 

 greatly exceeds the pain. Throughout the animal 

 kingdom the duration of suffering is short compared 

 to the length of life, and the amount of pain is small 

 compared to the pleasures of existence. This of it- 

 self would be sufficient justification for the creation 

 of such beings. 



But I have already shown that suffering is benefi- 

 cent, in that it is necessary for the preservation of the 

 life of the animal. 



Many organisms perish for lack of food. But little 

 pain results from the deficient nourishment of the 

 body, even in man. The body gradually wastes by the 

 oxidation of its tissues until a painless death results. 

 Perishing of cold is but a brief and painless process. 

 As a rule, the duration of the pains of fatal disease 

 is short compared to the length of life. 



