THE KINSHIP OF LIFE, Ir 
Then again, if species be the subject of special in- 
tervention such as some have imagined, how is it that 
after years of study we are still uncer- 
Uncertain tain as to their characters and bounda- 
boundaries of aerate 
species. ries? We have found that no two indi- 
viduals of any species are ever quite 
alike. We know that these variations group themselves 
together so as to form subordinate races or varieties— 
species within species. We know that again and again 
these minor forms or subspecies have been mistaken for 
real species. We know that in thousands of cases to- 
day the good and the true species of one writer will 
be only varieties with another. We know that every 
year intermediate forms are found which break down 
the walls between species, so that the better any group 
is known the smaller becomes its list of species and 
the greater the range of variations. ‘There is absolutely 
no test by which we can separate species from races or 
varieties. Our actual test is the test of ignorance. 
When we do not know any intervening forms we regard 
two given species as distinct. When we find intergrada- 
tions we unite these species. All naturalists have been 
forced to admit that species seem to be but varieties “of 
a larger growth,” while varieties seem tg be incipient 
species. These facts had been noticed and had been 
admitted long before most naturalists were willing 
to believe that such appearances were anything but 
most deceitful. Professor Cope tells us of a concholo- 
gist who kept his species of shells from varying by 
crushing under his heel all specimens which in any way 
tended to depart from the proper type. It is only by 
such methods as this that different species can be kept 
distinct from each other. 
Let us take an illustration out of many that come to 
hand. Continued explorations bring to light from year 
