The Making of Species 
see at once the great use of this small blackish 
flower in the middle. It looks like an insect, and 
possibly in the home of the wild carrot there is 
some minute blackish insect with a peculiarly 
villainous smell or taste—or perhaps a potent 
sting — which grazing animals carefully avoid 
whenever they can see it. Thus the wild carrot 
flourishes; though here in Britain—where the wild 
carrot has established itself now—we may fail at 
first to see the exact meaning of the trick. I 
think, however, that, when we understand it, it 
fits admirably into the theory that the shapes 
and colours of flowers are primarily useful as 
deterrents to grazing and browsing animals and 
not as attractions to insects. 
“Thus we see,” he concludes, “that the queer 
shapes of these orchids, which are a great stum- 
bling-block in the way of those who preach that 
we owe the shapes of flowers to the tastes of 
insects, become a strong confirmation of my 
theory that we owe the shapes of flowers to graz- 
ing and browsing animals.” 
Of the nectar of flowers, Kay Robinson 
writes: “Since this is eagerly sought for by 
hosts of insects, whose visits are in most cases 
useful to the flowers, it seems only natural to 
suppose that we see cause and effect in this 
connection. 
“Here, however, I will outline my theory of 
the origin of nectar and of flowers in general. 
270 
