SPERMATOPHYTA— FAGALES 403 



and our hazel nut (C. americana) are articles of commerce. Both the American 

 beech (Fagus ferruginea), and the European (F. sylvatica), are prized for their 

 nuts, which contain a vahiable oil. The chestnuts are well known in commerce. 

 The American chestnut {Castancti dentata) is common in the United States. 

 The European species (C. sativa), has long been cultivated in North America; 

 the Japanese (C. japonica) is also cultivated. In southern Europe, starch and 

 flour are made from the nuts of the Spanish chestnut (C. sativa). The wood 

 of many species of oak is used for interior finishing and furniture, among 

 these are white oak {Quercus alba), red oak (Q. rubra), pin oak (Q. palustris), 

 EngHsh oak (Q. Robur) and the live oak {Q. virginiana) of the south. The 

 bark of several species like the scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), English oak, and 

 chestnut oak (C Muhlenbergii) is used for tanning. Cork is obtained from 

 the bark of Q. Pseudo-suber. The galls of Q. lusitanica are used for dyeing 

 purposes. They are known as the Aleppo galls and contain from 60-70 per cent 

 of tannic acid. The bark of the White Oak is used in medicine and is recog- 

 nized as medicinal in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The main constituent 

 of oak bark is tannin which is used like other astringents. 



The acorns of the Belotes, the evergreen oak of Europe (Q. Ilex) are used 

 for food. The oaks are well represented in eastern North America, several 

 handsome species also occurring on the Pacific coast. 



Formerly, and perhaps even now, in some regions the acorns of the White 

 Oak and the Bur Oak were dried, roasted, ground, and used very much as 

 the coffee berry. 



In Europe, various species of oaks cause sickness and death in hogs and 

 cattle. Dr. Chesnut suggests that this might possibly be caused by the tannin 

 or bitter principle contained therein. 



In sections of the country, where oaks are common, hogs are allowed to 

 run in the forests, the farmers considering that the acorns are fattening. In 

 some parts of the south, it is believed that the mast of oaks makes excellent 

 feed for hogs but is poisonous to cows, a small amount merely decreasing the 

 flow of milk while a greater quantity causes death. It is also claimed that 

 the "sweet mast," that of the white and bur oaks, is less poisonous than the 

 "bitter mast" of mast of black, pin, red and cow oaks. Mr. E. B. Watson 

 made some inquiries upon this subject for me, among southern farmers and 

 obtained evidence of four men, which differed slightly in detail but agreed 

 in the conclusions that mast is poisonous to cattle but rather beneficial to horses 

 and hogs. Some say that the coarse hulls or cups clog the digestive tract and 

 cause unthriftiness ; others that there is actually poison in the mast. That cat- 

 tle are affected more seriously than hogs or horses may possibly be explained 

 by the difference in the structure of the digestive organs. 



In some localities tympanites is said to be produced in cattle that browse 

 on the leaves and bark which are very strongly astringent. The white oak 

 contains about 10 per cent of tannin. Q. lusitanica contains in addition to tannic 

 acid mentioned before, from 2-4 per cent of gallic acid. That other plants of 

 the order are injurious has been indicated by Freidberger and Frohner who 

 state that the European Beech produces violent colic, tetanus, mania and fits 

 of madness resembling those produced by strychnin; that the autopsy shows 

 lesions resembling strychnin poisoning. They recommend giving tannin, morphin 

 and chloral hydrate. 



