100 



damp or dry oak woods, forming coppices, 

 also on limestone and chalk. Eemains of 

 it are found in peat beds. It grows at 

 a higher altitude than any other tree pro- 

 ducing domestic fruits or nuts. The 

 Blackberry, and with it one may associate 

 Loganberry, a hybrid, grows on dry and 

 stony soils, sandy soils. A similar soil 

 suits the Vine. 



The Hop grows on alluvial soils, over- 

 lying peat (amorphous), in the marsh 

 formation. 



Wild Pear is very uncommon in this 

 country. It will grow on most soils, and 

 higher up than the Crab. It thrives better 

 on light sandy soils than clay. This is in 

 strong contrast to the Crab, which grows 

 mainly on stiff soils inclined to be clayey, 

 which makes better cider, a good loamy 

 soil, and apples trees grown on light 

 sandy soils produce cider which has a 

 tendency to become acid after a time. 



There is some connection between soils 

 and altitude, for at the higher altitudes 

 the rocks are older and harder, and often 

 exposed at the surface, forming hills by 

 their greater hardness, valleys being 

 formed by various agencies in the softer 

 rocks. Valleys and plains, as a whole, 

 yield deeper soils, varying in texture and 

 porosity. The upper limit of the oak and 

 other deciduous trees is not much above 

 the limit of cultivation of wheat, or 1,000ft. 

 Birch and pine grow at 1,200ft. and over. 

 Most trees grow at altitudes of 400- 

 500ft., and at altitudes of 700-800ft. and 

 more it is unprofitable to grow them. 

 The same applies to fruit trees, which do 

 not do well above 500ft. 



In general trees, in which we may in- 

 clude fruit-trees, do best on rich loam, 

 which may be to some extent gravelly, or 

 even peaty. The depth of soil most suited 

 to habit and growth is 2-3ft., on a good, 

 not hard or barren, subsoil. The differ- 

 ences between the requirements of each 

 plant are, however, important, not only 

 chemically, but physically. Trees must, 

 in any case, have good drainage, and soils 

 liable to accumulate stagnant water are 

 highly inimical to fruit-trees. The close- 

 ness or openness of a soil again determines 

 the root-extension, and as root-systems of 

 different fruit-trees differ largely, they 

 must have a soil exactly suited to their 



requirements in this respect, some deep- 

 rooting trees sending down roots to a 

 depth of 7-8ft., whilst large trees extend 

 theirs as much as 100ft. horizontally. The 

 shallow soil is not 1ft. deep, medium soils, 

 l-2ft., deep soils, 2-4ft. Deep soils are 

 mainly clays and loams. Slope has some 

 effect in addition in relation to soil 

 characters. A slope of 30 degrees is a 

 suitable one. On such sheltered soils the 

 mulberry will grow on well-drained sandy 

 soil. 



It is of importance to know the 

 characters of soils from a chemical as well 

 as a physical standpoint. As regards 

 chemical properties the principal question 

 is the proportion of lime salts, and of 

 organic matter or humus. Eoughly, soils 

 may be classed as clay, loam, sand, lime- 

 stone or chalk, humus or peat, saline. 

 The proportion of lime salts, humus, 

 saline matter, has a chemical effect; and 

 sand, clay and loam are terms relating 

 rather to physical properties determining 

 such factors as texture, porosity, capill- 

 arity, water-bearing capacity and circula- 

 tion. Apart from the organic matter, the 

 elements or substances in all rocks of an 

 inorganic nature are silica, alumina, calcic 

 carbonate, phosphoric acid, sulphuric 

 acid, potash, soda, ferric oxide, magnesia 

 chlorine, combined in various forms, and 

 it is from these that the plant obtains its 

 nutrient salts in soluble form by action 

 of the roothairs on the soil particles. 



Some soils contain more of one sub- 

 stance than other. Silica is more abun- 

 dant in sands and clays; 80 per cent, in 

 the former and 60-70 per cent, in the 

 latter, whilst limestones contain only 

 20-30 per cent. In clays the silica, in 

 the form of aluminates, is more available 

 than in sands. In clays the alumina 

 causes the stiffness of the soil, there being 

 6-10 per cent., and only 1-4 per cent, in 

 sands, which are thus much less adhesive. 

 Lime salts may be present, in the propor- 

 tion in chalk of 90 per cent. ; 60 per cent, 

 in limestones ; and in marl of 25 per cent. 

 In clay and loam there is from 1-3 per 

 cent. 



The other constituents occur in small 

 quantities, and have often to be supplied, 

 especially phosphates and potash salts, 

 artificially. In clays there may be 1 per 

 cent, phosphoric acid. Potash occurs up 



