REACTION OF THE HORSE 215 



as it were, along the latter's line of vision, did he receive 

 his reward. A su fficient number of repetitions was all 

 that was necessary to establish an association~In~the 

 psychological sense of the term. In the same manner, 

 dogs will learn, as was indicated on page 177, to bring an 

 obj.ect upon which the master has fixed his gaze, it mat- 

 tering little whether or not the name of the object be 

 enunciated. There is only this difference, that, in the 

 case of the dog it is not ^possible to keep the image of the 

 master within the field of vision; but neither is it neces- 

 sary, for he has recognized— the- object before he has 

 started for it. We must remember, however, that it does 

 not simplify an attempt at explanation to assume that Mr. 

 von Osten consciously trained the animal to respond to 

 certain bodily positions of the questioner. For, even in 

 this case, it would be necessary to explain how it was pos- 

 sible for him to train the horse to heed the cues. — In the- 

 course of time, the instructor may have noticed that when- 

 ever he moved during the course of a test the horse in- 

 variably failed. But he may have regarded this merely as 

 an incidental distraction and afterward was careful to re- 

 main quiet. As soon as he increased the number of cloths 

 upon the floor, it was no longer possible for him to give 

 the horse such accurate directive signs, and the number 

 of errors consequently increased. Ascribing them to the 

 inattentiveness of his pupil, he sought to encourage him 

 by such calls as " look out ", " look there ", " see there ", 

 believing that, thus, he was directing the horse's attention 

 to the desired color. Without understanding the mean- 

 ing of the calls, Hans learned, however, to keep moving 

 just as long as the calling continued, for if he did this he 

 was regularly rewarded. An association was established 

 between the call and the impulse to move on. And with 



