VIII 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 



X. Climax Fobmations or North 

 Amebica — Gout. 



Desert Climaxes 229 



Southeastern Climaxes 236 



XI. Succession in Eurasia. 



Scandinavia 238 



Britain 250 



Middle Europe 262 



Russia 270 



Mediterranean region 272 



Tropics and subtropics 274 



XII. Past Climates and Climaxes. 

 Interpretation. 



Interpretation of past vegetations 279 



Methods of interpretation 280 



Vegetation Eras. 



Criteria 283 



Evidence from the method of sequence 286 



Division into eras 288 



Saporta's table of eras and periods 288 



Relation of vegetation era and eosere 289 



Comparison of geologic and vegetation eras . . . 289 



The Plant Record. 



Nature 290 



Strates and stases 291 



The strate 292 



Kinds of strates 293 



The stase 293 



Water stases 294 



Kinds of stases 295 



Relations of strate and stase 295 



Relation to stratigraphic units 296 



Relation to succession 297 



Deformation and Gradation. 



Processes 297 



N&ture of deformation 298 



Great periodic movements of deformation . . . 298 



Sequences of deformation 299 



Permian deformation 300 



The circulation sequence 300 



The gradation sequence 300 



The climatic sequence 301 



The deformation cycle 302 



The series of deformation cycles 304 



Deformation and unconformity 305 



Correlation of climates 306 



Effects upon vegetation 307 



The cycle of erosion 307 



Relation to vegetation 309 



Past Climates. 



Interpretation 312 



Evidence of past climates and changes 313 



Geologic evidence 313 



Salt and gypsum 314 



Red beds 314 



Terraces 315 



Fluctuations of lake levels 316 



PAGE. 



XII. Past Climates and Climaxes— Cont. 



Botanic Evidence. 



Plant fossils ^17 



Successional evidences 317 



Evidence from stases |f* 



Evidence from annual rings 318 



Zooic Evidence. 



Animal fossils 319 



Culture relicts 319 



Causes of Climatic Changes. 



Kinds of causes 320 



The deformational hypothesis 321 



The volcanic hypothesis 322 



The solar hypothesis 325 



KuUmer's law of the shift of the storm-track . . 326 



The cyclonic solar hypothesis 327 



Relative value of causes 327 



Coincidence of causes 328 



Climatic Cycles. 



Relation of changes and cycles 329 



Kinds of cycles 330 



Arotowski's cycle of 2 J years 330 



The 11-year sun-spot cycle 332 



Sun-spot maxima and minima from 1750 to 



1913 333 



Table of maximum and minimum years, 1610 



to 1913 334 



Nature of sun-spots 334 



Effects of sun-spots upon climate 334 



Douglass's 21-year cycle 336 



Bruckner's 35-year cycle , 336 



Major sun-spot cycles 337 



Volcanic cycles 338 



Deformational cycles 339 



The Series of Climax Cycles. 



Correlation of cycles 339 



Table of climatic cycles 340 



Spatial differentiation of climates 341 



Correlation of Climatic Cycles and Succession. 



General relations 342 



Responses of vegetation 342 



Relation to the different climatic cycles 343 



XIII. Past Succession: The Ceneosere. 



General Principles. 



Phylogeny and ontogeny 344 



Recapitulation 345 



Geosere and eosere 346 



Clisere 347 



Cosere 348 



Correlations of seres 349 



Processes and principles of past succession . . . 349 



