10 N Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-1918 



years not until a month later. During the winter the freshwater ice may attain 

 a thickness of almost ten feet, from which it follows that all the ponds and lakes 

 shallower than that freeze to the bottom. Owing to their size, currents and the 

 influence of the winds the large deeper lakes do not freeze over permanently 

 until a week or two after the ponds. As the large creeks forming the outlets 

 are all shallow in this vicinity, they also quickly freeze to the bottom. It 

 should be remembered however, that occasional low temperatures, generally at 

 nights, both in the spring and the fall cause the surface of ponds and of the more 

 quiet bights of the lakes to be covered with new ice which may, or may not, 

 according to succeeding temperatures, melt away the same year. 



To illustrate these general remarks about the influence of the weather upon 

 the freshwater bodies the following field observations may be of interest. 



May 22, 1915, was clear and unusually warm (from 24° to 62° F.). The 

 melting snow formed temporary, stagnant, small pools, both on the sea ice, 

 where there were accumulations of sand, and upon land. The largest of these 

 pools was found in a depression on top of a ridge; it had free water six by two 

 feet wide. The two big lakes inland west of the station had the snow upon their 

 ice melted away at many places, but no water was to be seen. The 

 different ponds at the harbour were all covered by snow. 



About the same date next year the spring was more advanced. Thus 

 on May 21 the weather was clear and warm (max. temp. 59° F.). Thermometer 

 lying in a water accumulation (melted snow, dark bottom) on the tundra showed 

 54° F., while the air was only 43° F. (noon). Even on the lowland (tundra or 

 swamp) the snow was disappearing fast; there were many and extensive 

 melting ponds on top of the lake ice, and the latter was soft and wet. Much 

 melting water was coming down in the big creek, and also in smaller, temporary 

 streams. 



May 24, 1915, was clear or cloudy, with temperatures from 20° to 45° F. 

 Where there were, on land or on the sea ice, accumulations on top of the snow, 

 the snow had melted, forming a hole with the sand in the bottom; the snow 

 protruding as an icy brim over the north side of the hole, while the south side 

 was open, and gently sloping outwards. At the bottom of such a hole upon the 

 land the thermometer showed, when sheltered from the wind, 33-5° F., at noon, 

 while the air was 27 ■ 3° F. Another stretch close by had the snow melted away 

 to a considerable extent, so that the bare tundra was exposed, showing stagnant 

 melting water pools in the depressions. This melting water had at noon a 

 temperature of 48-8° F. (thermometer lying in the bottom), while the bare 

 ground around it (thermometer lying on the ground) was 50° F. 



On the last day of May, 1916, the land was all free of snow, except for 

 patches upon the slopes. All the ponds at the harbour were also free of 

 ice (apart from new ice formed at night) and snow, and had their maximum 

 extension. The big lake in the valley west of the station was still covered 

 with ice in its southern part, while the north part was open, with the water 

 streaming to the outlet, along which cakes of ice were carried down to the sea. 



On June 16, 1915, one of the ridges at the harbour was largely free of snow 

 even upon its north side; and about half way to the top a broad terrace 

 showed melting water in the depressions in the form of temporary smaller 

 ponds or water-holes with gravel bottom. On the swamp below, south 

 of the ridge, a few of the true tundra ponds with detritus mud bottoms were 

 open, and there was stagnant water in the other depressions. The swamp itself 

 was now mostly free of snow, but the mud flats through which it merges into 

 the sandy beach, only partly so. The ponds now drained off through several 

 small temporary streams to the bay. Two days later the snow was melting 

 rapidly, and the small streams coming down the slopes formed temporary pools 

 here and there, and merged into lakes or creeks. The thermometer lying 

 upon the bottom of such a pool showed 56° F., in flowing melting water close 



