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plojed more in general trading. The majority of the 

 estate coolies belong to Java or are from the neighbouring 

 island of Madoera. The adjacent islands of Sumatra and 

 Borneo, and also Malaya, are yearly drawing on the 

 native labour force in Java. This can continue for many 

 years to come without affecting the island under review. 



It is generally understood that Javanese coolies are 

 not only abundant, but cheap. Anent the latter, I have 

 a word to say. It may be that, owing to the cheapness 

 of native labour, the authorities find it more economical 

 to employ coolies to carry stones in bags, and water the 

 streets by hand buckets, rather than use horses and carts. 

 But I am not so certain that the average daily cost of a 

 day's labour on an estate is always so phenomenally cheap 

 as reported. The cost is not so much a question of hours 

 employed as work done. Where the task or daily con- 

 tract system is in vogue, the wages paid are always such 

 as to leave a good margin for the employer; but on other 

 estates, where the average daily rates for children, women 

 and men, are respectively 15, 25 and 30 cents (100 cents 

 equal twenty pence), the cheapness is not so apparent, 

 compared with the costs in Ceylon and South India. It 

 is certainly much cheaper than in Malaya and Sumatra, 

 though even in the latter places the coolies, being in- 

 dentured, usually do a better day's v.'ork than in Java. 

 I have been on Java estates where the average daily cost 

 for all labourers ranged from about 20 to 31 cents (4d. 

 to 6 i-.sd.); in Ceylon the average may be taken at about 

 33 rupee cents per day (5 7-25d.). But I was informed 

 that the districts I visited had opened up large blocks 

 of jungle quite recently, and to that development must 

 be attributed the high daily wages paid. 



When, however, one studies the costs of bringing 

 estates into bearing, he finds that they are much lower in 

 Java than most Eastern colonies. This is due partly to 

 the contract system adopted and also, to some extent, to 

 the methods of cultivation in Java. The coolies are 

 nearly all free, and can generally refuse to work for any 

 particular estate. On some properties, however, the pro- 

 prietors can rely on a certain amount of free labour, ac- 

 cording to arrangement. On many estates the hours of 

 work are from 6 a.m. to 12 and i p.m. to 6 p.m.; very 



