8 ZOOLOGY 



and palasontolog)^ we get a department of Zoology called Phylo- 

 geny, the object of which is to trace the pedigrees of the various 

 groups. There are, however, very few cases in which this can be 

 done with anj- approach to exactness : most " pliylogenies " are 

 "purely hypothetical, and merely represent the views at which a 

 particular zoologist has arrived after a more or less exhaustive 

 study of the grouj] under discussion. 



Animals may also be studied from the point of view 

 of Distribution. One aspect of this study is inseparable from 

 Palaeontology, since it is obviously necessary to mention in con- 

 nection with a fossil the particular system or systems of rocks in 

 which it occurs : thus we distinguish geological distribution or 

 distribution in time. 



The distribution of recent forms may be studied under two 

 aspects, their horizontal or geographical distribution, and their 

 vertical or bathymetrical distribution. To mention the latter 

 first, we find that some species exist only on plains, others — hence 

 called al'pine, forms — on the higher mountains ; that some marine 

 shells, fishes, &c., always keep near the shore (littoral species), others 

 live at great depths {cibyssal species), while others (pelagic 

 species) swim on the surface of the ocean. Among aquatic 

 animals, moreover, whether marine or fresh-water, three principal 

 modes of life are to be distinguished. There are animals, such 

 as Jelly-fishes, which float on or near the surface of the water, 

 and are carried about passively by currents : such forms are 

 included under the term Plankton. Most Fishes, Whales, and 

 Cuttle-fishes, on the other hand, are strong swimmers, and are able 

 to traverse the water at will in any direction ; they together consti- 

 tute the Nekton. Finally, such animals as Crabs, Oysters, Sponges, 

 Zoophytes, &c., remain permanently fixed to or creep over the 

 surface of the bottom, and are grouped together as the Benthos. 



Under the head of geographical distribution we have such facts 

 as the absence of all Land-mammals, except Bats, in New Zealand 

 and the Polynesian Islands, the presence of pouched Mammals, 

 such as Kangaroos and Opossums, only in some parts of America 

 and in Australia and the adjacent islands, the entire absence of 

 Finches in Australasia, and so on. We find, in fact, that the 

 fawui — i.e. the total animal inhabitants — of a country is to a 

 large extent independent of climate, and that the faunte of 

 adjacent countries often differ widely. In fact, it is convenient 

 in studying the geographical distribution of animals largely to 

 ignore the ordinary division into continents, and to divide the 

 land-surface of the globe into what are called zoo-geographical 

 regions. The characteristics of these regions will be discussed in 

 a future section ; at present it is only necessary, for convenience of 

 reference, to give their names and boundaries. 



