PROFESSOR HUXLEY'S VIEWS ON EVOLUTION 209 



but their allies, the ass, zebra, quagga, and the Uke. The horse is in many ways a remarkable animal ; not least 

 so in the fact that it presents us with an example of one of the most perfect pieces of machinery in the living 

 world. The locomotive machinery is resident in its slender fore and hind-hmbs ; they are flexible and elastic 

 levers, capable of being moved by very powerful muscles ; and, in order to supply the engines which work these 

 levers with the force which they expend, the horse is provided with a very perfect apparatus for grinding its food 

 and extracting therefrom the requisite fuel. Without attempting to take you very far into the region of osteo- 

 logical detail, let us turn to the fore-hmb. In most quadrupeds, as in ourselves, the fore-arm contains distinct 

 bones called the radius and the ulna. The corresponding region in the horse seems at first to possess but one bone. 

 Careful observation, however, enables us to distinguish in this bone a part which clearly answers to the upper end 

 of the ulna. This is closely united with the chief mass of the bone which represents the radius, and runs out into 

 a slender shaft which may be traced for some distance downwards upon the back of the radius, and then in most 

 cases thins out and vanishes. It takes still more trouble to make sure of what is nevertheless the fact, that a 

 small part of the lower end of the bone of the horse's fore-arm, which is only distinct in a very young foal, is 

 really the lower extremity of the ulna. 



" What is commonly called the knee of a horse is its wrist. The ' cannon bone ' answers to the middle 

 bone of the five metacarpal bones, which support the palm of the hand in ourselves. The ' pastern,' 

 ' coronary,' and ' coffin ' bones of veterinarians answer to the joints of our middle fingers, while the hoof 

 is simply a greatly enlarged and thickened nail. But if what lies below the horse's ' knee ' thus corre- 

 sponds to the middle finger in ourselves, what has become of the other four fingers or digits ? We find in 

 the places of the second and fourth digits only two slender splint-like bones, about two-thirds as long as the 

 cannon bone, which gradually taper to their lower ends and bear no finger joints, or, as they are termed, 

 phalanges. Sometimes small bony or gristly nodules are to be found at the bases of these two metacarpal 

 splints, and it is probable that these represent rudiments of the first and fifth toes. Thus, the part of the horse's 

 skeleton which corresponds with that of the human hand contains one overgrown middle digit, and at least two 

 imperfect lateral digits ; and these answer, respectively, to the third, the second, and the fourth fingers in man. 

 Corresponding modifications are found in the hind limb. The heel of the horse is the part commonly known 

 as the hock. The hinder cannon bone answers to the middle metatarsal bone of the human foot ; the pastern, 

 coronary, and coffin bones to the middle toe bones ; the hind hoof to the nail, as in the fore foot. And, as in the 

 fore foot, there are merely two sphnts to represent the second and the fourth toes. Sometimes a rudiment of a 

 fifth toe appears to be traceable. 



" The teeth of a horse are not less pecuUar than its Hmbs. The twelve cutting teeth of a horse are close-set and 

 concentrated in the fore-part of its mouth, Uke so many adzes or chisels. The grinders or molars are large, and 

 have an extremely compUcated structure, being composed of a number of different substances of unequal 

 hardness. The consequence of this is that they wear away at different rates ; and, hence, the surface of each 

 grinder is always as uneven as that of a good mill-stone. ... I have now enumerated those characteristic 

 structures of the horse which are of most importance. To any one who is acquainted with the morphology of 

 vertebrated animals, they show that the horse deviates widely from the general structure of mammals ; and that 

 the horse type is, in many respects, an extreme modification of the general mammaUan plan. The least modified 

 mammals, in fact, have the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct and separate. They have five distinct 

 and complete digits on each foot, and no one of these digits is very much larger than the rest. Moreover, in the 

 least modified mammals, the total number of the teeth is very generally forty-four, while in horses, the usual 

 number is forty. . . . The general principles of the hypothesis of evolution lead to the conclusion that the horse must 

 have been derived from some quadruped which possessed five complete digits on each foot ; which had the bones 

 of the fore-arm and of the leg complete and separate ; and which possessed forty-four teeth. In Europe abundant 

 remains of horses are found in the Quaternary and later Tertiary strata as far as the Pliocene formation. But these 

 horses, which are so common in the cave-deposits and in the gravels of Europe, are in all essential respects like exist- 

 ing horses. And that is true of all the horses of the latter part of the PUocene epoch. But, in deposits which 

 belong to the earher Pliocene and later Miocene epochs, and which occur in Britain, in Prance, in Germany, in 

 Greece, in India, we find animals which are extremely Uke horses— which, in fact, are so similar to horses, that you 

 may follow descriptions given in works upon the anatomy of the horse upon the skeletons of these animals— but 

 which differ in some important particulars. For example, the structure of their fore and hind Umbs is somewhat 

 different. The bones which, in the horse, are represented by two sphnts, imperfect below, are as long as the middle 

 metacarpal and metatarsal bones ; and, attached to the extremity of each, is a digit with three joints of the same 

 general character as those of the middle digit, only very much smaUer. These smaU digits are so disposed that 

 they could have had but very little functional importance, and they must have been rather of the nature of the 

 VOL. I. ^^ 



