120 “The Descent of Man” 
show that some of the most distinctive human characters are in all 
probability directly or indirectly due to natural selection. With 
characteristic modesty he adds': “Hence, if I have erred in giving 
to natural selection great power, which I am very far from ad- 
mitting, or in having exaggerated its power, which is in itself 
probable, I have at least, as I hope, done good service in aiding to 
overthrow the dogma of separate creations.” At the end of the 
chapter he touches upon the objection as to man’s helpless and 
defenceless condition. Against this he urges his intelligence and 
social instincts. ‘ : 
The two following chapters contain a detailed discussion of the 
objections drawn from the supposed great differences between the 
mental powers of men and animals. Darwin at once admits that the 
differences are enormous, but not that any fundamental difference 
between the two can be found. Very characteristic of him is the 
following passage: “In what manner the mental powers were first 
developed in the lowest organisms, is as hopeless an enquiry as how 
life itself first originated. These are problems for the distant-future, 
if they are ever to be solved by man®.” 
After some brief observations on instinct and intelligence, Darwin 
brings forward evidence to show that the greater number of the 
emotional states, such as pleasure and pain, happiness and misery, 
love and hate are common to man and the higher animals. He goes 
on to give various examples showing that wonder and curiosity, 
imitation, attention, memory and imagination (dreams of animals), 
can also be observed in the higher mammals, especially in apes. In 
regard even to reason there are no sharply defined limits. A certain 
faculty of deliberation is characteristic of some animals, and the more 
thoroughly we know an animal the more intelligence we are inclined 
to credit it with. Examples are brought forward of the intelligent 
and deliberate actions of apes, dogs and elephants. But although no 
sharply defined differences exist between man and animals, there is, 
nevertheless, a series of other mental powers which are characteristics 
usually regarded as absolutely peculiar to man. Some of these charac- 
teristics are examined in detail, and it is shown that the arguments 
drawn from them are not conclusive. Man alone is said to be capable 
of progressive improvement; but against this must be placed as some- 
thing analogous in animals, the fact that they learn cunning and 
caution through long continued persecution. Even the use of tools is 
not in itself peculiar to man (monkeys use sticks, stones and twigs), 
but man alone fashions and uses implements designed for a special 
purpose. In this connection the remarks taken from Lubbock in 
regard to the origin and gradual development of the earliest flint 
1 Descent of Man, p. 92. 2 Ibid. p. 100. 
