EFFECT OF IRREGULAR PILING ON SOLID CONTENTS 125 



smooth sticks of uniform sizes, carefully piled, may yield from 105 

 to 107 cubic feet, but never as much as the 116 cubic feet theoretically 

 possible. This loss is due first to irregular piling, and second, to vari- 

 ation of the bolts or sticks from uniform cylindrical form. 



Piling exercises an enormous influence, which increases in direct 

 proportion to the irregularities of form. When to extreme crooked- 

 ness and surface irregularities is added dishonest piling, including the 

 laying of sticks at angles with each other, or even piling over stumps 

 and other trade practices, the purchaser may incur a loss of from 20 

 to 30 per cent from piling alone. Choppers are always paid by stacked 

 measure and close supervision is required to secure a full cord. The 

 factor of piling may cause more variation in the solid contents of a cord 

 than that of form of sticks. Since this factor depends upon the laborer, 

 the contents of a cord of wood, as a commercial standard, is based on 

 what can be expected of choppers rather than a theoretical maximum. 

 Conversion factors for obtaining cubic contents of wood are based on 

 average conditions of piling. The cord can never be satisfactorily used 

 as a basis of scientific measurements of volume produced by trees and 

 stands, or of growth, though for convenience, cubic contents is often 

 converted into cords to express the results of these investigations. 



104. Effect of Variation in Form of Sticks on Solid Contents. 

 Variation in the form of sticks is caused by taper, eccentric cross sections, 

 crook, and irregularities or roughness of surface. All departures from 

 cylindrical form increase the air space in a stacked cord. 



The effect of taper can be partially overcome by piling bolts with 

 large and small ends alternating. But this is never done in practice. 

 Sticks split from bolts which include stump taper are apt to be some- 

 what curved as well as tapering. Sticks with eccentric cross-sections 

 do not pack as closely as round sticks and give a smaller per cent of solid 

 contents. 



Crook is one of the most important factors in reducing the cubic 

 contents of a cord. The slightest departure from a straight axis exerts 

 a corresponding influence in increasing the air space in stacking. Very 

 crooked sticks may reduce the contents of a cord by 50 per cent. 



Irregularities of surface in round sticks are caused by bark, knots, 

 stubs and swellings. Every such protuberance, by contact with adjoin- 

 ing sticks, decreases the solid contents of the stack. Split sticks are 

 irregular in both form and surface and always take up more room than 

 the round bolts from which they were split or round bolts of equal 

 diameter and straightness. 



Since sticks with the smoothest surface and least taper will pack 

 the closest, and the removal of bark affects both factors, favorably, the 

 cubic contents of a cord of peeled wood is always greater than the cubic 



