INTRODUCTION. Ixiii 



2. Period of comparative anatomy and paleontology. — Cuvier, born in 1769, was 

 the founder of the twin sciences of comparative anatomy and paleontology, and at 

 Paris centred the great lights of comparative anatomy, Geo&ey Saint-Hilaire, La- 

 marck, Bichat, Vicq d'Azyr, Blainville ; France then leading the scientific world, 

 though Germany had her Blumenbach, Dollinger, Tiedemann, Bojanus, and Carus. 



Meckel, at his time the leading German anatomist and compiler, studied at Paris 

 with Cuvier, and so did Richard Owen of England, and Milne-Edwards of France. 

 Both the latter are still living. Sir Richard Owen, in his eightieth year, being still 

 pi'olific in monographic memoirs, both morphological and paleontological. Among 

 writers on the doctrine of animal types, who flourished in the first third of the present 

 century, were Lamarck, Cuvier, Blainville, and Von Baer. During this period the 

 science of embryology began to take form under the inspiration of Oken, Pander, 

 Dollinger, Von Baer, Rathke, and Wolff ; this work was carried on in later years by 

 Coste, Bischoff, Reichert, Kolliker, Vogt, and Agassiz. 



The great activity shown at Paris by Cuvier in the building up of the Jardin des 

 Plantes, led to the French exploring expeditions sent out from 1800-1832 to all 

 parts of the world, resulting in enlarged views regarding the number and distribution 

 of species, and their relations to their environment. The zoologists who went on these 

 expeditions were Bory de St. Vincent, Savigny, Peron, Lesueur, Quoy, Gaimard, Vail- 

 lant, Eydoux, and Souleyet. From 1823-1850 England fitted out exploring expedi- 

 tions under Beechey, Fitzroy, Belcher, Ross, Franklin, and Stanley, the naturalists of 

 which were Bennett, Owen, Darwin, Adams, and Huxley. 



Russia (1803-1829) sent out expeditions to the north and northeast, accompanied 

 by the naturalists Tilesius, Langsdorff, Chamisso, Eschsoholtz, and Brandt, all of them 

 of German birth and education. The United States exploring expedition under Wilkes 

 (1838-1842) was, in scientific results, not inferior to any previous ones, the zoolo- 

 gists being Dana, Couthuoy, and Peale. Of a later voyage under Ringgold, Stimpson 

 was the naturalist, but the rich final results were lost by fire. At or near the close of 

 this period, from Germany, Humboldt, Spix, Prince Wied-Neeuwied, batterer, Perty, 

 Reugger, Tschudi, Schomburgk, Bui-jneister ; from France, deAzara, d'Orbigny, Gay, 

 Castlenau ; and from Denmark, Lund, — travelled at their private expense, an evidence 

 of the spirit of scientific research then dominating the centres of civilization. Their 

 followers in the present time have been Wallace, Semper, Bates, Michlucho-Maclay, 

 Prezvalsky, and many others. 



Towards the middle of the century, the leading comparative anatomist and physi- 

 ologist was Mtiller of Berlin. Now began to dawn the modern period of morphology 

 and embryology, under his inspiration, and that of Savigny, Sars, Rathke, Agassiz. 



General tex1>books on comparative anatomy, compiled by leading authorities, are 

 R. E. Grant's Lectures on Comparative Anatomy (1833-4), Wagner's (1834-5), 

 Owen's Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the Invertebrates (1843 and 1855), 

 and Anatomy of Vertebrates (1866-68); Siebold (invertebrates) and Stannius (verte- 

 brates) (1845-46); RoUeston's Forms of Animal Life (1870) ; Huxley's Anatomy of 

 the Vertebrates (1871), and Invertebrates (1877) ; finally the list culminates in the 

 suggestive work of Gegenbaar (1874), entitled Elements of Comparative Anatomy, 

 and written from the modern morphological and evolutional standpoint. The lead- 

 ing text-books of systematic zoology are those of Van der Hoeven (1850), Carus, 

 and Gerstaecker (1863-75), and lastly that of Glaus (1868-84). The great encyclo- 

 paedic work, Classen und Ordnungen der Thierreichs, planned and begun by Bronn, 



