426 ZOOLOGY. : 
that there is a natural series of forms leading from the stur- 
geon, which is nearest the Elasmobranchs, up through the 
spoon-bill to the true Ganoids, and that the latter, through 
Amia, leads to the bony fishes, we shall have a clue to the 
intricate relations existing between them and the other sub- 
classes of fishes. * 
The Ganoids of the present day are well nigh confined to 
fresh water, the sturgeons alone living in the sea as well as 
ascending rivers; though the Devonian and carboniferous 
forms occur as marine fossils. 
In synthetic forms, like the Ganoids, it is difficult to find 
absolute characters separating them from the Elasmobranchs 
on the one hand and the Teleosts on the other. The diag- 
nostic characters are the following: the skeleton is either 
wholly cartilaginous, or partly or wholly bony; the skin is 
either smooth, or with cycloid, or usually with ganoid scales ; 
the gills are free ; the gill-opening is covered with an oper- 
cular bone ; the first fin-rays generally sharp; the air-blad- 
der with a pneumatic duct ; the embryos sometimes with ex- 
ternal gills.» 
The spinal column is usually cartilaginous; in the Dip- 
noans, the sturgeons, the paddle-fish and allies, the notochord, 
with its sheath, is persistent ; while in Polypterus and Amia 
the spinal column is completely bony, the vertebre being 
amphicelous, t. e.,biconcave ; while in the garpike (Lepidos- 
deus) the vertebre are convex in front and concave behind. 
The cartilaginous skull is covered by broad, thin membrane- 
bones, as seen in the sturgeon. The tail is heterocercal, the 
lobes being, in Amia, nearly equal. 
The brain has large cerebral lobes, the cerebellum forming 
a transverse fold. The heart and aortic bulb are as in the 
Elasmobranchs, and all but Lepidosteus have a well-devel- 
oped spiral valve in the intestine, the valve being rudimentary 
* For works on Ganoids, sce Wilder’s Garpikes, Old and Young (Pop. 
Sc. Monthly, 1877); A. Agassiz’s Development of Lepidosteus (Proc. 
Amer. Acad. Arts and Sc., 1878); Balfour and Parker’s Structure 
and Development of Lepidosteus (Phil. Trans., 1882); Shufeidt’s 
Osteology of Amia calva, 1885; Ryder’s Sturgeons, etc., of Eastern 
U.8., 1890; Mark’s Studies on Lepidosteus (Bull. Mus. C. Zool., 1890); 
with the writings of J. Miller, Hyrtl, Kolliker, Gegenbaur, Liitken, 
Boas, Hertwig, Garman, etc. 
