Animal Psychology, the Old and the New ii 



the same diversity of opinion in regard to the men- 

 tal life of animals that occurs in modern times. 

 While it was contended by some that the animals 

 occupy a position immeasurably below that of man, 

 the Greeks in general were inclined to a more gener- 

 ous estimate of the animal mind. Apparently there 

 were no sustained studies of animal psychology 

 among the ancient Greeks, with the single possible 

 exception of the observations of Aristotle, most of 

 which, however, were of a desultory character. 

 Aristotle's three treatises on zoology contain nu- 

 merous records of the habits of animals, and his 

 general estimate of the mental powers of animals 

 might well pass for that of a conservative psycholo- 

 gist of the present time. Most animals, according 

 to Aristotle, "appear to exhibit gentleness or feroc- 

 ity, mildness or cruelty, courage or cowardice, fear 

 or boldness, violence or cunning; and many of them 

 exhibit something like a rational consciousness, as 

 we remarked in speaking of their parts. For they 

 differ from man, and man from animals, in a greater 

 or less degree ; for some of these traits are exhibited 

 strongly in man, and others in animals." The ani- 

 mal mind corresponds to the undeveloped human 

 mind, for in speaking of infants Aristotle remarks, 

 "nor does their soul at this period differ in any re- 

 spect from that of an animal." ("Hist, of Ani- 

 mals," Bk. 8.) 



The sage observation that the life of animals 

 "may be divided into two acts, procreation and 



